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Date  Due 


NATURE  STUD\ 


7 


BY   GRADES 


A  TEXT-BOOK  FOR  LOAVER  GRAMMAR  GRADES 


BY 

HORACE  H.  CUMMINGS,  B.S. 

FORMER   SUPERVISOR    OF   NATURE    STUDY,    STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL, 

UNIVERSITY    OF    UTAH 


1    { 


NEW  YORK      CINCINNATI  .  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


The  time  has  now  happily  passed  when  it  is  necessary  to  urge  the 
importance  oj  the  love  and  study  o)  nature,  or  to  show  how  from  it  have 
sprung  love  oj  art,  science,  and  religion,  or  how  in  the  ideal  school  it 
will  have  a  central  place,  slowly  subordinating  most  other  branches  oj 
study  as  jormal  and  accessory,  while  it  remains  substantial.  To  know 
nature  and  man  is  the  sum  oj  earthly  knowledge. 

G.  Stanley  Hall 


Copyright,  1901).  by 
HORACE  H.  CUMMINGS 
Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,   London 
w.  p.    I 


TO  THE  TEACHER 

It  is  the  object  of  this  book  to  aid  both  teachers  and 
pupils  in  an  examination  and  study  of  the  common  laws 
and  properties  of  matter  found  in  every  school  environment ; 
to  organize  and  'direct  investigations  into  the  secrets  of 
nature;  to  discover  her  laws  and  their  relations  to  us;  to 
stimulate  observation  and  inference;  and  to  enjoy  com- 
munion with,  and  to  secure  profit  from,  the  common  things 
around  us. 

Bearing  in  mind  that  children  should  study  things  rather 
than  books,  and  that  these  things  must  be  found  within  the 
environment  of  the  children  ;  and,  further,  that  no  text-book 
can  be  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  include  in  its  lessons  all 
the  useful  features  in  the  surroundings  of  any  considerable 
number  of  schools  or  homes,  it  follows,  therefore,  that  many 
original  lessons,  based  upon  the  observations  and  experiences 
of  individual  schools,  should  form  an  important  part  of  a 
course  in  nature  study,  and  must  be  provided  by  the  teacher. 

Most  of  the  lessons  included  in  this  text  are  general  in 
character  and  may  be  given  in  any  school;  but  equal  or 
greater  good  comes  from  studying  special  features  of  the 
respective  environments  of  various  schools.  In  doing  this, 
the  pupils  acquire  more  readily  the  true  scientific  attitude 
toward  nature ;  appreciate  and  enjoy  better  her  phenomena; 
get  a  more  perfect  conception  of  the  principles  bv  which 
nature  is  governed,  and  understand  more  clearlv  how  these 
principles  may  be  made  to  serve  man's  needs.  The  teacher 
must  be  depended  upon  to  direct  most  of  these  original  inves- 
tigations, and  can  get  httle  direct  aid  from  any  book  except 

OH  53       "" 
0^5  19672 


iv  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

suggestions  as  to  methods  of  procedure  in  solving  original 

problems. 

Before  taking  up  this  second  book  of  nature  study,  it  is 
presumed  that  the  teacher  is  familiar  with  the  explanations 
given  in  Book  I,  and  that  the  pupils  also  have  done  the  work 
there  provided. 

The  subjects  forming  the  basis  of  the  Fourth  Year's  work 
are  chosen  from  the  realm  of  thought  and  experience  of  pupils 
of  this  age,  and  develop  further  the  work  given  for  the  lower 
grades.  The  language  used  is  simple,  and  the  directions 
and  experiments  given  are  understood  easily  by  the  children. 
TJie  teacher  may  modify  any  lesson  here  given,  or  even 
substitute  a  new  one  to  make  it  fit  better  the  needs  and  condi- 
tions of  the  school. 

Very  often  the  suggestions  contained  in  a  single  lesson 
may  be  expanded  with  much  profit  into  several  lessons,  the 
teacher  placing  an  outline  of  the  required  work  on  the 
blackboard.  Local  interest,  conditions,  and  familiarity  with 
the  subject,  will  determine  the  nature  and  amount  of  this 
work. 

-  When  treating  a  topic  which  requires  continuous  observa- 
tion for  several  days  or  longer  to  complete,  but  which  for 
convenience  is  given  in  one  lesson  (as,  for  example,  "Ger- 
mination"), such  questions,  directions,  experiments,  etc.,  as 
can  be  considered  the  first  day  are  given  in  proper  order  in  the 
first  paragraphs.  Another  group  of  paragraphs  will  contain 
the  matter  that  further  development  and  observation  might 
make  it  desirable  to  consider  the  second  time  the  subject 
receives  attention;  and  so  on.  Thus  the  lesson  is  developed 
by  successive  steps  taken  at  intervals  of  several  days,  though 
.  it  is  written  as  a  unit  for  the  sake  of  showing  connections  and 


TO  THE  TEACHER  V 

making  easy  a  review  and  application.  The  teacher,  from 
the  nature  of  the  work,  must  determine  the  best  times  for 
recurring  to  the  lesson;  and  should  also  provide  work  from 
the  text  or  elsewhere  for  the  recitations  intervening. 

Some  physical  experience — observing,  handling,  or  experi- 
menting with  an  object — should  always  precede  or  accompany 
the  abstract  consideration  of  it.  This  important  rule  de- 
termines the  relation  of  the  text  to  the  teacher,  and  the  kind 
and  amount  of  aid  the  latter  can  get  from  the  text. 

Therefore  the  teacher  must  see  that  the  pupils  make 
observations  and  perform  the  experiments  directed,  or 
equivalent  ones,  and  be  ever  ready  to  supplement  the  questions 
and  illustrations  given,  in  order  to  insure  the  comprehension  of 
the  properties,  principles,  or  laws  involved  in  the  lesson. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  go  further  than  the  class  can 
follow,  or  the  pupils  will  become  discouraged.  Sometimes 
perhaps  more  has  been  placed  in  the  text  than  some  classes 
can  grasp,  but  it  is  easier  for  the  teacher  to  omit  portions 
than  to  provide  more  work  herself. 

While  there  is  no  intention  to  puzzle  either  teacher  or 
pupil  in  presenting  the  questions  and  problems  herein  con- 
tained, it  is  believed  to  be  better  pedagogy  to  leave  them 
unanswered  and  unsolved  than  to  print  the  answers  and 
solutions  for  the  pupils  to  read.  The  latter  process  is  so 
much  easier  and  quicker  than  the  former  that  it  would  always 
be  chosen,  and  the  pupils  would  fail  to  get  the  educative 
values  of  working  out  solutions  by  themselves.  For  this 
reason  few  explanations  are  given  in  the  text.  Inability 
to  explain  satisfactorily  some  few  things  should  not  discourage 
effort.  There  are  many  truths  that  scientists  cannot  explain. 
Occasionally,  observations,  experiments,  and  questions, 


vi  NATURE    STUDY    BY   GRADES 

u&ed  in  treating  some  of  the  topics  studied  in  the  primary 
grades,  are  repeated  here.  This  seems  to  be  almost  unavoid- 
able, and  is  done  to  bring  into  consciousness  and  to  system- 
atize the  fragments  of  knowledge  the  child  already  has  of 
the  subject  and  to  insure  the  making^  of  proper  connection? 
with  the  new  thoughts  to  be  developed  in  the  lesson.  In  few 
cases,  however,  will  such  apparent  repetitions  be  real  ones. 
The  added  experience  of  the  ten  or  twelve  year  old  boy  will 
give  the  observation  or  question  a  content  very  different 
from  what  it  had  for  him  when  he  was  only  six  or  eight  years 
of  age. 

The  illustrations  are  used,  in  most  cases,  to  explain  the 
arrangement  of  apparatus,  or  to  show  some  condition 
or  phenomenon  in  nature  rarely  seen  by  children  living  in 
large  cities.  The  latter  are  usually  photo- engravings — the 
best  possible  substitute  for  the  real  objects.  For  many  of 
these,  as  well  as  for  valuable  suggestions  concerning  subject 
matter,  acknowledgments  are  due  to  the  faculty  of  the  Utah 
State  Normal  School  and  to  Professors  R.  S.  Northrop  and 
E.  G.  Titus  of  the  Utah  Experiment  Station. 

H.    H.    CUMMINGS. 


CONTENTS 


Fourth  Grade — Fall  Work 


LESSON 

I.  What  the  Weather  Does 

II.  What  the  Weather  Is 

III.  The  Clouds      . 

IV.  Kinds  of  Clouds 

V.  The  Wind    .      . 

VI.  A  Rainstorm    . 

VII.  Air  Pressure   . 


VIII.  The  Barometer 

IX.  Use  of  the  Barometer 

X.  Conditions  Affecting  Rain- 
fall      

XI.  Objective  Representations 

XII.  Natural    History    Calen- 
dar     

XIII.  The  Stars      .... 

XIV.  Study  of  Trees — Shapes 

XV.  Study  of  Trees — Trunks 

XVI.  Study        of         Trees- 
Branches       

XVII.  Study       of        Trees- 
Leaves     

XVIII.  Study  of  Trees— Buds 

XIX.  Study  of  Trees — Roots 

XX.  Plant" Relations  to  Water 

XXI.  Sage  Brush    .... 


PAGE 
1 

3 

4 

5 

7 

9 

12 

14 

15 

17 

18 

22 
24 
26 
29 

31 

33 
36 
37 
40 
41 


Fourth  Grade — Winter  Work 

XXII.  Snow 43 

XXIII.  Prehension  of  Food    .  45 

XXIV.  Adaptations  for  Food 
Getting 47 

XXV.  The  Skeleton     ...  49 

XXVI.  Heat  —  Temperature 
Sense       .......  52 

XXVII.  Heat     Sense     Train- 
ing       53 


LESSON  PAOK 

XXVIII.  Heat — Measurements  54 

XXIX.  Heat— Natural  Sources  55 

XXX.  Heat — Combustion       .  57 

XXXI.  Heat— Relation  to  Ox- 
ygen          58 

XXXII.  Heat— Friction     .      .  59 

XXXIII.  Heat— Percussion    .  60 

XXXIV.  Heat— Electricity     .  61 

XXXV.  Heat— Chemical  'Ac- 
tion     62 

XXXVI.  Heat — Expansion  of 
Solids 63 

XXXVII.  Heat— Expansion  of 
Liquids  and  Gases        .      .  65 

XXXVIII.  Heat— Conduction  66 

XXXIX.  H  e  a  t— P  h  y  s  i  c  a  1 
Changes 68 

XL.     Evaporation    ....  70 

XLI.     Evaporation  (Continued)  72 

XLII.     Condensation    ...  74 

XLIII.     Work  for  the  Frost     .  75 

Fourth  Grade — Spring  Work 

XLIV.     The     Weathering     of 

Rocks 77 

XLV.     Erosion  of  Rocks    .  78 
XL VI.     Constituents  of  Soil     .  79 
XL VII.     Nature  of  Soil  Mate- 
rial       81 

XL VIII.     The  School  Garden  82 
XLIX.     The  School  Garden — 

(Continued)        ....  84 

L.     Study  of  Buds   ....  87 

LI.     Relation  of  Birds  to  Trees  89 

LII.     An  Orchard    ....  91 

LI II.     Orchard  Pests    ...  93 

LIV.     ElTccts  of  Cultivation    .  94 
LV.     Making       Our       Homes 

Beautiful 95 


vn 


VIU 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


LESSON  ^^^^ 

LVI.  The  Common  Toad  .  97 
LVII.  The  Earth  Worm  .  .  99 
LVIII.  Study  of  Insects  .  .  101 
LIX.  Life  Histor\'  of  Insects  102 
LX.  The  Honeybee  .  .  .103 
LXI.     The  Hen'       .      .      .      .105 

Fifth  Grade — Fall  Work 

I.  Importance  of  Weather       .    107 

II.  Distribution  of  Heat    .      .    109 

III.  Effects  of  Sunshine    .      .    112 

IV.  Length  of  the  Day      .      .    113 

V.  W^eather — C  auses     and 
Effect 114 

VI.  Causes  of  Wind     .      .      .115 

VII.  The  Weather  Bureau      .    118 

VIII.  Causes  of  Precipitation    120 

IX.  Regions    of    Heavy    and 
Light  Rainfall    .      .      .      .121 

X.  Respiration 124 

XL     Respiration  (Continued)  .    126 

XII.  Ventilation      .      .      .      .127 

XIII.  Carbon  Dioxide       .      .    129 

XIV.  Oxygen 130 

XV.  Evergreen  and  Deciduous 
Trees       ......    132 

XVI.  Evergreen    and    Decid- 
uous Trees  (Continued)     .    134 

XVII  Lumbering   .      .      .      .135 

XVIII  Lumbering  (Continued)  137 

Fifth  Grade — Winter  Work 

XIX.  Study  of  a  Fossil      .      .    139 

XX.  Study  of  Coal       .      .      .141 

XXI.  Study  of  a  Coal  Bed        .    142 

XXII.  Coal  Mines  and  INIin- 

ing 146 

XXIII.  Charcoal  and  Coke    .    146 

XXIV.  The  Moon        .      .      .147 
XXV     Vegetable  Fibers      .      .    149 

XXVI.  Animal  Fibers        .      .    151 

XXVII.  Chemistr)^  of  Dyeing     152 

XXVIII.  The  Sheep  Industry   154 

XXIX.  The     Sheep    Industry 
(Continued)        ....    155 

XXX.  The  Cattle  Industry      .    157 

XXXI.  The  Dairy  Cow    .      .    160 


LESSON  PAGE 

XXXII.  Beef  Cattle     .      .      .161 

XXXIII.  Ranges     and     the 
National  Forests      .      .      .    164 

XXXIV.  Hunting    and   Trap- 
ping  ...       .... 

XXXV.  Fish  and  Fishing.      . 

XXXVI.  Shellfish    .... 

XXXVII.  Building  Stones      . 

XXXVIII.  Properties     of 
Minerals 

XXXIX.  Ores  and  Smelting    . 

Fifth  Grade — Spring  Work 


166 
168 
170 
171 

172 
174 


XL.     A  Problem  in  Gardening     175 

XLI.     Causes  of  Seasons    .      .    176 

XLII.     Transportation    —    Its 

Evolution 178 

XLIII.     Transportation  —  The 

Lever 180 

XLIV.     Transportation  —  The 

Lever  (Continued)         .      .    181 

XLV.     Transportation —  Kinds 

of  Levers 183 

XLVI.     Transportation  —  The 

Wheel 185 

XLVII.     Transportation — The 

Inclined  Plane    ....    186 

XLVIII.     Transportation  —  A 

Railroad 188 

XLIX.     Our  Great  Railroads  .    190 

L.     Plant      Propagation — Ger- 
mination         191 

LI.     Plant    Propagation — Cut- 
tings   192 

LII.     Plant  Propagation — Bud- 
ding   194 

LIII.     Grafting 197 

LIV.     Chief  Crops  of  the  United 

States 198 

LV.     Plant  Struggles— Wind    .   200 

LVI.     Plant  Struggles  — 

Drought 202 

LVII.    Plant  Struggles— Neigh-     . 
bors         204 

LVIII.     Plant    Struggles— Cli- 
mate         206 

LIX.     Plant   Struggles— Ani- 
mals         207 


FOURTH    GRADE— FALL   WORK 

LESSON  I 

WHAT  THE  WEATHER  DOES 

To  THE  Teacher. — The  pupils  should  make  simple  observations 
regularly  on  various  features  of  the  weather;  and  vi^hat  they  see  should  be 
recorded  upon  the  blackboard  and  discussed  in  the  class  occasionally. 
Give  the  pupils  opportunity  to  observe  the  different  kinds  of  weather  as 
they  occur,  and  base  the  lessons,  as  far  as  possible,  upon  what  they  have 
seen.  The  suggestive  lessons  given  here  upon  different  phases  of  this 
subject  should  be  given  at  the  time  the  needed  observation  work  can  be 
done.  Other  lessons  should  grow  out  of  these  which  the  teacher  may 
prepare  as  needed,  for  the  subject  should  receive  occasional  attention 
throughout  the  year. 

1.  What  does  weather  do  for  us?  Does  it  ever  help  or 
hinder  us  in  our  play  ?  How?  In  our  work?  How? 

2.  How  do  the  different  kinds  of  weather  affect  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  landscape?  Which  do  you  prefer,  a 
winter  scene  or  an  autumn  scene?  Draw  a  scene  for  each 
season. 

3.  What  good  have  you  seen  done  by  a  rain  storm  ?  a  snow 
storm  ?  a  hail  storm  ?  a  wind  storm  ? 

4.  Give  an  account  of  any  harm  that  you  have  ever  seen 
done  by  any  of  these  storms. 

5.  Would  it  be  a  good  thing  to  have  fair  weather  all  the 
time? 

6.  Tell  what  you  know  about  countries  where  it  rarely 
storms. 

7.  Should  we  be  glad  or  sorry  when  it  rains?  Why? 

8.  Tell  how  different  kinds  of  weather  affect  plants.    What 

I 


2  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

kind  makes  them  grow?  What  kind  kills  many?  When  do 
plants  grow  fastest?  What  kind  of  weather  have  we  then? 
When  do  plants  grow  least?  What  kind  of  weather  have  we 
then? 

9.  How  are  animals  affected  by  weather?  What  care 
should  they  receive  in  hot  weather?  in  cold  weather?  Con- 
sider the  horse,  cow,  dog,  chickens,  pets,  etc. 

10.  What  kind  of  weather  do  we  have  in  the  spring  ?  in  the 
winter  ?  in  the  fall  ?  in  the  summer  ?  Which  kind  do  you  like 
the  best  ?  Why  ? 

11.  What  games  do  we  play  in  the  spring?  in  the  win- 
ter ?  in  the  summer  ?  in  the  fall  ?  Does  the  weather  have  any- 
thing to  do  with  changing  our  sports  ?  Is  it  a  good  thing  to 
change  our  sports? 

12.  What  tradesmen  have  much  work  in  summer, 
but  little  in  winter,  owing  to  the  weather?  What  season  of 
the  year  is  your  father  busiest  ?  When  do  you  do  most  work  ? 

13.  What  harm  would  be  done  if  a  heavy  snow  storm  should 
occur  in  summer? 

14.  A  hea\7  rain  storm  in  the  winter  time  would  cause 
what  damage? 

15.  If  you  could,  what  changes  would  you  make  in  the 
kinds  of  weather  w^e  have  during  the  different  seasons  of  the 
year? 

16.  Would  you  like  to  know  a  day  or  two  beforehand  what 
the  weather  will  be?  Why?  Of  what  use  would  this  know- 
ledge be  to  man? 

We  will  study  the  weather  this  year  and  try  to  learn 
more  about  what  it  does  for  us  and  how  to  foretell  the 
different  changes  that  are  constantly  taking  place  in  its 
conditions. 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK  3 

LESSON  II 
WHAT  WEATHER  IS 

1 .  How  many  kinds  of  weather  can  you  name  ? 

2.  Describe  each  of  the  following  kinds  of  weather: 
cloudy;  windy;  fair;  rainy;  cold;  hot;  sultry. 

3.  Which  kind  of  weather  are  we  having  to-day  ? 

4.  Tell  all  you  can  about  the  last  heavy  rain  storm.  Did 
the  wind  blow?  If  so,  in  what  direction?  What  kind  of 
clouds  covered  the  sky?  Did  the  storm  make  it  colder  or 
warmer?  How  long  did  it  last?  How  much  water  fell?  Did 
it  thunder  or  lighten  ? 

5.  What  good  was  done  by  this  rain  ?  Did  it  do  any  harm  ? 

6.  In  trying  to  learn  about  the  weather,  what  things  must 
we  study? 

7.  Where  did  the  rain  come  from?  Where  did  the  clouds 
get  their  moisture  ?  What  became  of  the  clouds  when  the  rain 
had  all  fallen? 

8.  What  makes  the  water  turn  into  clouds?  Where  does 
the  heat  come  from  that  evaporates  the  water  ?  Would  there 
ever  be  rain  were  it  not  for  the  heat  of  the  sun? 

9.  What  brings  the  moisture  from  the  sea  to  fall  upon  the 
lands  hundreds  of  miles  awav? 

10.  What  are  the  three  chief  things  that  go  to  make  up 
weather  ? 

11.  Could  we  have  any  of  the  kinds  of  weather  we  have 
mentioned  without  either  of  these  three  things  ? 

12.  What  would  have  been  the  effect  upon  the  last  heaxy 
rain  had  there  been  very  little  heat  ?  if  there  had  been  very 
httle  moisture? 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


LESSON   III 


THE  CLOUD 

I  bring  fresh  showers  for  the  thirsty  flowers, 

From  the  seas  and  distant  streams. 
I  bear  light  shade  for  the  leaves  when  laid 

In  their  noon-day  dreams. 
From  my  wings  are  shaken  the  dews  that  waken 

The  sweet  buds  every  one, 
When  rocked  to  rest  on  their  mother's  breast, 

As  she  dances  about  the  sun. 
I  wield  the  flail  of  the  thrashing  hail, 

And  whiten  the  green  plumes  under, 
And  then  again  I  dissolve  it  in  rain, 

And  laugh  as  I  pass  in  thunder. 

— Shelley. 

THE  CLOUDS 

1.  Have  you  ever  noticed  the  clouds  moving?  Is  their 
motion  slow  or  rapid?  Did  they  all  seem  to  be  going  in  the 
same  direction,  or  were  they  moving  about  in  many  direc- 
tions? 

2.  What  moves  the  clouds  ?  Do  they  travel  far  ? 

3.  What  are  clouds  made  of?  What  do  they  look  like? 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  smoke  and  steam  ?  What 
is  smoke  made  of?  From  what  is  steam  made? 

Experiment. — Hold  a  cold  glass  in  a  steam  jet,  or  breathe  upon  it  and 
see  what  forms  on  it.  Hold  another  in  a  smoky  flame  and  find  out  what 
will  collect  on  it. 

5.  From  what  did  the  drops  of  water  come  ?  Where  else 
have  you  seen  drops  of  water  formed  in  a  similar  way? 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK  5 

6.  Where  did  the  soot  come  from?  Where  else  have 
you  seen  soot  that  was  formed  in  a  similar  way  ? 

7.  Give  other  proofs  that  clouds  and  smoke  are  different. 

8.  How  high  above  the  ground  are  clouds  ?  Have  you  ever 
seen  them  resting  on  a  mountain?  Have  you  ever  seen,  at 
a  distance,  the  shadow  of  a  small  cloud  moving  over  the 
ground?  Could  you  tell  from  this  how  high  the  cloud  was? 
Clouds  are  often  thought  to  be  much  higher  than  they  really  are. 

9.  Under  what  conditions  are  clouds  formed?  How  is 
steam  made? 

10.  Can  we  always  see  our  breath,  or  the  steam  as  it  comes 
from  a  teakettle?  On  what  kind  of  day  can  we  see  either  of 
these  best? 

1 1 .  Have  you  ever  noticed  steam,  or  vapor y  rising  on  a  warm 
day  from  the  ground,  as  the  mud  is  drying  up  after  a  rain  ? 
Do  you  think  any  vapor  ever  goes  up  that  we  cannot  see? 

Sometimes  vapor  can  be  seen  and  sometimes  it  cannot,  but 
it  is  always  being  formed  when  water  is  drying  up,  or  evap- 
orating. When  the  air  is  cold  enough,  vapor  can  be  seen. 
If  the  water  dries  up  very  slowly,  the  vapor  cannot  be  seen 
even  on  a  cold  day. 

12.  Where  do  you  think  most  clouds  are  formed?  Why? 

LESSON  IV 

KINDS  OF  CLOUDS 

1.  About  how  much  of  the  sky  is  covered  with  clouds 
to-day?  Describe  them. 

2.  How  much  of  the  full  amount  of  sunshine  will  they  cut 
off? 


6  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

2.  Describe  the  different  kinds  of  clouds  that  you  have  seen. 

4.  What  kind  covers  the  sky  when  it  is  raining  or  snowing? 
When  it  is  storming,  so  much  vapor  has  risen  that  the  sky 

is  full  of  it,  just  as  the  kitchen  may  be  full  of  vapor  on  wash 
days  in  the  winter  time.  Such  even,  dark  gray  clouds  are 
called  Nimhus,  or  storm  clouds. 

5.  When  the  air  is  quiet  and  much  vapor  is  rising  from  the 
ground,  what  kind  of  clouds  do  you  think  the  vapor  will  form 
when  it  reaches  the  cold  air  in  the  sky? 

6.  Have  you  seen  the  rounded  cloudlike  masses  of  steam 
formed  in  the  still  air  near  the  mouth  of  a  teakettle,  or  near 
the  exhaust  pipe  of  an  engine? 

Clouds  piled  up  like  great  balls  of  cotton  are  called  Cumulus 
clouds. 

7.  If  you  were  to  blow  strongly  against  these  rounded 
masses  of  steam  above  the  spout  of  a  teakettle,  how  would 
your  breath  change  their  form? 

8.  Suppose  a  strong  wind  in  the  sky  should  blow  against 
some  cumulus  clouds,  how  would  it  change  their  form? 

9.  Why  are  clouds  lying  in  long,  level  streaks  in  the  sky 
called  Stratus,  or  wind  clouds? 

Sometimes  on  a  fair  day  quite  a  portion  of  the  sky  is  covered 
with  small  fragments  of  clouds  that  look  like  white  feathers. 
These  are  called  Cirrus  clouds,  and  are  often  very  high. 

10.  Can  you  tell  how  such  clouds  may  be  formed? 

11.  By  observing  clouds,  learn  to  recognize  each  kind 
easily  in  the  sky. 

No  one  of  these  forms — except  the  first — is  often  seen 
covering  any  considerable  portion  of  the  sky  unless  mixed 
with  other  clouds.  When  two  kinds  blend,  their  two  names 
arc  united  in  describing  them;  e.  g.,  cirro-cumulus  clouds. , 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK  7 

12.  Mention  the  four  principal  forms  of  clouds  and  describe 
the  conditions  under  which  each   kind   may  be  produced. 

13.  Make  a  drawing  to  represent  each  kind. 

14.  When  a  cloud  rests  on  the  ground,  what  do  we  call  it  ? 

15.  What  makes  it  rest  on  the  ground?  Is  the  air  heavy 
or  light  when  this  happens?  Give  a  reason  for  your 
answ^er. 

16.  Notice  how  much  of  the  sky  is  covered  with  clouds  each 
day  and  if  they  interfere  with  the  amount  of  sunshine  that  we 
get. 

To  THE  Teacher. — The  Weather  Bureau  will  furnish  free  a  colored 
chart  illustrating  the  different  kinds  of  clouds. 

LESSON   V 
THE  WIND 

1.  What  wind  is  blowing  to-day?  What  good  does  wind 
do?  What  harm  does  it  sometimes  do?  Give  examples. 
What  is  wind? 

2.  What  do  we  call  strong  winds  that  often  do  great 
damage?  What  do  we  call  gentle  winds? 

The  gentlest  winds  move  about  two  miles  an  hour.  When 
wind  moves  as  fast  as  an  ordinary  train,  that  is,  40  miles  an 
hour,  we  call  it  a  gale]  in  a  hurricane  it  moves  about  as  fast 
as  the  fastest  trains— a  mile  a  minute.  The  strongest  winds 
do  not  move  100  miles  an  hour. 

3.  What  wind  usually  brings  a  storm  in  your  locality? 

4.  What  time  of  the  year  do  you  have  most  wind? 

5.  Make  a  weather-vane  in  the  manual-training  room,  and 
fasten  it  on  some  high  object  away  from  trees  and  buildings 


8 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


where  it  will  show  the  true  direction  of  the  w^ind.  Notice 
each  day  the  direction  or  the  absence  of  w^ind  and  record 
your  observations  upon  the  blackboard. 

6.  Find  the  average  direction  of  the  wind  each  week;  each 
month. 

7.  What  uses  does  man  make  of  wind? 


Experiment. — Make  a  toy  windmill 
as  follows:  Take  a  square  piece  of 
strong,  stiff,  writing  paper  and  from 
each  corner  cut  inward  nearly  to  the 
center,  making  eight  points.  Bend 
four  alternate  points  over  the  center 
and  pass  a  pin  through  them  and  the 
center  into  the  end  of  a  wooden  handle. 
A  mere  breath  will  make  this  turn 
round  the  pin  as  an  axis. 


An   Old-fashioned  Windmill 


8.  Tell  how  the  force 
of  the  wind  turns  it. 

9.  Describe  large  wind- 
mills that  you  may  have 
seen,  and  tell  about  the 
work  that  they  do. 

10.  In  w^hat  other  ways 
does  man  make  use  of  the 
force  of  the  wind  ? 

11.  How  does  man  pro- 
tect himself  against  the 
bad  effects  of 
winds?  Give  examples. 


strong 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK  g 

LESSON  VI 

A  RAINSTORM 

To  THE  Teacher. — At  an  opportune  time,  when  a  rain  storm  is  about 
to  occur,  the  pupils  should  observe,  as  far  as  possible,  all  its  features  and 
discover  its  efTects.  A  written  account  of  what  they  learn  would  be  a 
good  subject  for  work  in  language  and  reading,  besides  fixing  better  In 
their  minds  w^hat  they  see.  In  developing  the  lesson,  use  such  number 
work  and  illustrations  as  will  enable  the  pupils  to  understand  something 
of  the  vast  quantities  of  w^ater  that  fall,  the  great  power  of  the  gentle 
forces  employed,  and  the  importance  of  the  work  that  is  done  by  the 
rain. 

1.  How  can  we  tell  when  it  is  going  to  rain? 

2.  Does  rain  usually  occur  suddenly,  or  does  it  take 
considerable  time  to  prepare  a  storm?  During  what  seasons 
do  the  most  sudden  storms  occur? 

3.  Describe  how  the  sky  becomes  covered  with  clouds. 
Where  do  they  seem  to  come  from  ?  Do  they  change  in  form 
as  the  storm  gathers? 

4.  Does  the  wind  blow,  and  if  so,  in  what  direction?  Do 
the  clouds  move  in  the  same  direction  as  the  wind  ?  Do  the 
upper  winds  ever  blow  in  a  different  direction  from  the  surface 
winds?  How  can  we  tell? 

5.  Does  it  thunder?  Does  it  lighten? 

6.  Does  the  rain  at  first  fall  fast  in  large  drops,  or  slowly  in 
fine  sprinkling? 

7.  In  what  months  does  most  rain  fall  in  your  vicinity? 
What  months  have  least  rainfall  during  the  year? 

8.  Which  kind  of  rain  storm  generally  extends  over  the 
greater  area,  a  sudden  thunder  storm,  or  a  long,  steady  rain  ? 
Which  do  you  think  does  the  more  good  ? 


lO  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

9.  How  may  the  amount  of  rain  that  falls  be  measured? 
Describe  a  rain  gauge.  Why  is  it  deep?  Infer  reasons  for 
its  shape.  Make  a  rain  gauge  from  an  empty  tin  can  for  use 
in  the  school. 

ID.  Measure  and  make  a  record  of  each  rainfall  as  it 
comes;  then,  at  the  end  of  the  month,  find  the  total  rainfall. 
Where  should  the  rain  gauge  be  placed  to  test  properly  the 

rainfall  ? 

11.  Measure  the  water  in  the  rain  gauge  after  a  rain  storm. 
Suppose  it  is  an  inch  deep,  how  many  cubic  inches  of  water 
fell  on  a  square  foot? 

Experiment  i. — Measure  144  cubic  inches  of  water  (or,  if  more  con- 
venient, of  sand  in  a  chalk  box,)  and  place  it  in  a  gallon  measure.  This 
is  the  amount  that  fell  on  a  square  foot. 

12.  About  what  part  of  a  gallon  fell  on  a  square  foot? 
How  many  gallons  fell  on  a  square  yard  ?  on  a  square  rod  ? 

13.  If  50  gallons  make  a  barrel,  how  many  barrels  fell  on  a 
space  as  large  as  the  schoolroom?  as  large  as  the  school 
garden  ? 

14.  Estimate  the  amount  of  rain  that  fell  on  various 
areas. 

A  man  could  drown  in  what  fell  on  the  lawn,  the  door 
yard,  or  the  street  in  front  of  the  house,  if  it  were  all 
collected  in  a  cistern. 

15.  Consider  how  much  fell  on  an  acre;  on  a  square  mile; 
on  the  whole  city. 

16.  Can  you  imagine  how  much  fell  during  the  entire 
storm  ?  If  it  were  all  collected  into  one  place,  how  big  a  lake 
would  it  form? 

17.  Where  did  all  the  water  come  from?  What  power 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK  II 

brought  it  to  us  from  so  far  away,  over  mountains  and  valleys  ? 
How  wonderful  are  the  forces  of  nature  and  how  quietly  she 
does  her  work! 

1 8.  If  all  the  rain  had  remained  where  it  fell,  how  deep 
would  the  water  be? 

19.  Where  did  all  this  water  go?  Did  more  run  off  than 
soak  in? 

Experiment  2. — Dig  in  the  ground  in  various  places  and  find  out  how 
deep  the  rain  soaked  in  and  made  the  soil  moist. 

20.  Did  it  soak  to  the  same  depth  everywhere?  Why 
not?  Consider  the  kind  of  soil,  the  slope  of  the  ground,  and 
other  conditions. 

21.  Explain  how  the  rain  benefits  the  grass,  trees,  crops,  etc. 

22.  What  would  be  the  result  if.no  rain  should  fall  for  a  few 
months  ?  Do  you  remember  when  such  a  condition  occurred  ? 

23.  What  became  of  the  rain  that  did  not  soak  into  the 
ground  ? 

24.  As  the  rain  flows  away,  is  it  clear  or  muddy?  Why? 

25.  What  damage  is  sometimes  done  by  high  water  or 
by  floods  caused  by  heavy  rains? 

RATN  IN  SUMMER 

How  beautiful  is  the  rain! 
After  the  dust  and  heat, 
In  the  broad  and  firey  street, 
In  the  narrow  lane, 
How  beautiful  is  the  rain! 

How  it  clatters  along  the  roofs, 

Like  the  tramp  of  hoofs! 

How  it  gushes  and  struggles  out 

From  the  throat  of  the  overflowing  sjwut! 


12 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


Across  the  window-pane 

It  pours  and  pours; 

And  swift  and  wide, 

With  a  muddy  tide, 

Like  a  river  down  the  gutter  roars 

The  rain,  the  welcome  rain! 

— Longfellow. 


LESSON  VII 

AIR  PRESSURE 

Experiment  i.— Make  a  small  hole  in  the  bottom  of  a  baking  powder 
can.     Cover  the  hole  with  the  end  of  the  finger  and  fill  the  can  with 

water.  Place  a  heavy  paper  over  the  top  and 
hold  it  on  while  you  quickly  turn  the  can  up- 
side down.  Remove  the  hand  that  holds  the 
paper  in  place. 

1 .  Why  does  not  the  water  run  out  ? 
In  what  direction  does  the  air  press  in 
holding  up  the  water?  What  keeps 
the  air  from  pressing  on  the  water  in 
any  other  direction? 

2.  Now  remove  the  finger  from  the 
hole,  and  what  takes  place?  In  what 
other  direction  does  the  air  press  on 
the  water  when  the  hole  is  opened? 
Tell  why  the  water  falls. 

3.  Cut  a  square  inch  of  paper  and 
lay  it  on  the  floor.  If  at  sea  level,  the 
column  of  air  resting  on  that  piece  of 
paper  and>  reaching  as  high  as  the  air 
goes,     would     weigh     nearly     fifteen 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK 


13 


A  Leather  "Sucker" 


pounds.      The   air,   then,   is   pressing    in   all   dircclions  at 
this  rate. 

Experiment  2. — Pass  a  strong  cord  througli 
the  center  of  a  round  disk  of  sole  leather,  tying 
a  knot  in  the  lower  end  to  prevent  it  passing 
through  the  leather.  Soak  the  disk  in  water 
until  it  is  quite  soft,  then  press  it  closely  to 
any  smooth  surface,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  and 
attempt  to  pull  it  away. 

4.  Stick  the  leather 
sucker  to  a  stone.  Why 
can  you  lift  the  stone? 
How  can  you  get  it  off? 
Why? 

5.  Why  will  not  mo- 
lasses flow  from  the  large 
hole    in   a   barrel  until   a 

small  one  is  made  in  the  upper  side  of  the  barrel  ? 

In  a  canyon  out  west  is  a  great  reservoir  filled  with  water. 
A  large  wooden  pipe,  bound  with  strong  iron  bands,  carries 
the  water  from  the  reservoir  down  the  canyon  at  a  very  steep 
grade.  One  day  the  man  in  charge  suddenly  closed  the  great 
valve  at  the  reservoir,  shutting  off  the  water  from  entering 
the  pipe.  The  water  which  already  filled  the  pijjc  continued 
by  its  great  weight  to  flow  downward,  leaving  the  upper  end 
empty.  A  long  section  of  this  empty  pipe  was  crushed  in. 
What  crushed  it  in?  Some  students  of  the  college  near 
there  had  told  the  man  what  would  happen  if  he  turned  otT 
the  water  suddenly,  but  he  would  not  believe  them. 

Experiment  3.— Put  one  end  of  a  bent  tube  into  a  glass  full  of  water, 
with  the  other  end  hanging  down  the  outside.  Why  docs  not  the  water 
flow  out? 


14 


NATURE   STUDY   BY   GRADES 


6.  Suck  the  air  out  of  the  tube  and  tell  what  happens.  Why  ? 

7.  Explain  the  action  of  the  siphon.    Tell  some  of  its  uses. 

8.  Tell  about  other  examples  of  air  pressure. 

LESSON  VIII 
THE  BAROMETER 


Experiment  i. — Take    a    wide- 
mouthed    bottle    one    fourth    full    of 
water  and  fitted  tightly  with  a   cork 
having   two   small    holes    through    it. 
Down  one  of  these  holes  push  a  long, 
straight,  glass  tube  until  its  lower  end 
reaches  below  the  surface  of  the  water.    Put 
a  short  bent  tube  into  the  other  hole,  not  far 
enough  to  reach  the  water.     Blow  through 
the  short  tube  and  tell  what  takes  place  in 
the  long  one. 


1.  What  happens  when  you  blow 
gently  ?  When  you  blow  hard  ?  Why  ? 

2,  Upon  what,  then,  does  the  height 
of  the  water  in  the  long  tube  depend  ? 

Experiment  2. — Fill  with  mercury  a  long 
tube  closed  at  one  end,  and  de  a  sack  made 
of  buckskin  over  the  other.  Invert  the  tube. 
The  mercury  is  so  heavy  that  it  falls  away 
from  the  closed  end  of  the  tube  a  short  dis- 
tance. Now  squeeze  gently  the  sack  of 
mercury.     What  happens  to  the  column  in  the  tube? 

3.  When  the  air  presses  on  the  sack  of  mercury,  what 
happens  ? 

4.  If  the  air  pressure  is  great,  what  is  the  effect  upon  the 
column?  If  the  air  pressure  is  slight? 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL  WORK 


^5 


When  properly  made,  the  tube  de- 
Experiment  2  forms  the  chief  part  of  a 
Generally  a  barometer  is  set  in  a  wooden 
protect  it,  and  a  carefully  graded  scale  is 
hind  it  so  that  the  height  of  the  mercury 
can  be  read  with  ease.  Since  no  air 
can  reach  the  upper  surface  of  themercu- 
downward,  the  column  is  moved  very  eas- 
pressure  on  the  sack  of  mercury  at  the 
open  vessel  of  mercury  is  often  used  in- 
the  sack  and  acts  in  the  same  way. 

5.  Does  the  smoke  from  a  chimney  rise 
keep    near  the    ground  when    the   air    is 
Why?   In  what  direction  do    very 
heavy  things  tend  to  move  ? 

6.  Will  a  chimney  draw  better 
when  the  barometer  is  high  or  when 
it  is  low?  Why? 

7.  Explain  why  a  balloon  rises. 
What  effect  will  high  or  low  air  pressure  have  upon  its  flight  ? 

8.  In  some  coal  mines  explosive  gases  ooze  out  of  crevices 
in  the  coal  seams  all  the  time.  Does  more  come  out  when  the 
\ir  is  light,  or  when  it  is  hea\7? 

9.  Is  the  danger  of  explosions  in  such  mines  greater  when 
the  barometer  is  hio^h  or  when  it  is  low  ? 


scribed  in 
barometer . 
frame  lo 
placed  be- 
in  the  tube 
pressure 
ry  to  press 
ily  by  any 
bottom.  An 
stead     of 

rapidly  or 
h  e  a  \'  y   ? 


Simplest  Form  of  the 
Barometer 


LESSON  IX 


USE  OF  THE  BAROMETER 


1.  Where  does  the  moisture  come  from  that  forms  clouds  ? 

2.  Where  does  evaporation  chietly   lake  place,  near   the 


1 6  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

earth's   surface  or  far  from  it?  Tell  where  you  have  seen 
water  drying  away. 

3.  How  does  vapor  get  up  to  where  it  forms  clouds?  What 
will  make  air  so  light  that  it  will  rise? 

Experiment.— By  means  of  "smoke  paper,"  or  a  small,  sensitive 
windmill,  show  that  the  hot  air  is  rising  over  a  lamp  chimney,  radiator, 
stove,  or  other  place  where  a  portion  becomes  heated.  Explain  the 
draught  of  the  chimney. 

4.  When  the  air  near  the  ground  becomes  very  warm,  and 
at   the    same    time   moist,    what   movement   usually   takes 

place  ? 

5.  If  this  air  rises,  the  moisture  goes  with  it.  Does  an 
upward  movement  of  air  over  a  large  area  cause  the  barometer 
to  rise  or  fall?  Why? 

6.  What  change  takes  place  in  the  moisture  of  this  rising 
air  when  it  reaches  the  cold  upper  regions?  What  happens 
when  warm  moist  air  from  the  ocean  is  blown  against 
high  mountains  ?  From  what  we  have  already  learned,  explain 
how  rain  is  produced. 

7.  How  does  the  barometer  generally  move  just  before  a 
storm?  Why? 

8.  If  a  great  body  of  air  is  rising  from  one  place,  what 
movement  of  air  must  be  taking  place  somewhere  else  ? 

9.  If  the  air  is  falling  over  a  large  area,  how  is  it  influencing 
the  barometer  there?  Why? 

10.  Can  air,  falling  from  the  cold,  upper  regions  into 
warmer,  moister  places  cause  a  storm  ?  Why  ? 

11.  Why  does  a  high  barometer  indicate  fair  weather? 

12.  Why  does  a  thunder  shower  usually  happen  on  a  hot, 
sultry  day? 

13.  Watch  the  barometer  and  tell  when  a  storm  is  coming. 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK 


LESSON  X 
CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  RAINFALL 

1.  Tell  how  rain  is  made.  . 

2.  What  kind  of  weather  causes  fastest  evaporation  ? 

3.  How  does  rapid  evaporation  affect  rain? 

4.  What  part  of  the  earth  is  hottest?  Where,  then,  will 
there  be  the  most  rapid  evaporation? 

5.  What  can  you  say  of  the  amount  of  rainfall  in  those 
regions  ? 

6.  When  is  the  sun  farthest  north  of  the  equator  ? 
-  7.  When  is  it  farthest  south  of  the  equator? 

8.  What  influence  has  the  sun  upon  evaporation?  Com- 
pare the  power  of  its  direct  and  slanting  rays  in  this  re- 
gard. 

9.  Why  does  the  rainy  season  in  Mexico  begin  in  June, 
while  in  Bolivia  it  begins  in  December? 

10.  Why  do  the  daily  rains  in  the  Tropics  follow  the  sun  in 
its  journey  north  and  south  of  the  equator  ? 

11.  Since  the  most  evaporation  occurs  over  the  ocean,  how 
does  the  vapor  get  inland  to  make  our  rain  ? 

12.  What  wind  in  your  locality  most  frequendy 
brings  rain?  Do  you  think  this  wind  comes  from  the 
ocean  ? 

13.  What  conditions  must  the  vapor  in  the  clouds  meet  to 

cause  rain? 

14.  In  how  many  ways  is  the  vapor  carried  in  the  air  made 
cool  enough  to  condense  and  fall  as  rain  or  snow  ? 


1 8  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

LESSON  XI 

OBJECTIVE  REPRESENTATIONS 

To  THE  Teacher. — Appropriate  graphic  or  objective  representations 
of  data  suggested  by  the  pupil  are  very  helpful  in  discovering  relations 
and  making  inferences.  Children  naturally  use  one  set  of  objects  to 
stand  for  others.  In  their  playhouses,  chips  and  stones  stand  for  people 
and  animals,  or  for  furniture  or  what  not.  Lead  pupils  to  invent,  as 
they  need  them,  their  own  methods  of  representing  the  results  of  their 
observations  of  the  weather,  and  to  keep  a  careful  record  of  them  on  the 
blackboard  or  in  some  fitting,  objective  way.  The  following  examples 
will  illustrate  some  ways  in  which  this  may  be  done. 

I — Temperature 

1.  Make  a  mark  on  the  blackboard  that  will  represent  the 
temperature  to-day. 

2.  What  was  the  temperature  yesterday?  Represent  it 
by  another  mark  beside  the  first.  Is  it  longer  or  shorter 
than  the  first?  Why? 

3.  In  like  manner  make  a  series  of  upright  lines  that  will 
represent  the  temperature  each  day  during  the  week. 

4.  Number  or  name  the  lines  to  show  for  which  day  each 
one  stands. 

5.  Can  you  tell  from  these  upright  lines  just  how  high  the 
thermometer  was  each  day  of  the  week  ?  Can  you  arrange  a 
diagram  that  will  do  this? 

6.  How  could  this  be  done  easily  on  cross-section  paper? 

7.  Let  each  vertical  line  on  a  piece  of  cross-section  paper 
stand  for  one  hour.  Name  them  9,  10,  11,  12,  i,  2,  and  3  for 
the  hours  that  school  is  in  session.  Let  each  horizontal 
line  represent  one  degree  of  temperature.     Give  one  of  these 


FOURTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK 


19 


Record  of  Daily  Temperature 

The  height  of  the  barometer  may  be  shown  in  a  similar  way. 

the  number  corresponding  to  the  reading  of  the  thermometer 
at  9  o'clock,  and  the  others  in-order  above  and  below. 

8.  At  10  o'clock  note  the  change  in  temperature  and  make  a 
line  from  the  point  indicating  the  height  of  the  thermometer 
at  9  o'clock  to  the  one  that  will  show  the  height  at  10  o'clock. 

9.  In  like  manner,  at  the  end  of  each  hour,  extend  the  line 
to  indicate  the  temperature  (See  page  127,  Book  I).  A  dia- 
gram of  small  squares  on  the  blackboard  will  serve  as  well. 

II — Air  Pressure 


1.  Tell  how  the  height  of  the  barometer  can  be  recorded  in 
a  similar  way. 

2.  Could  the  same  piece  of  cross-section  paper,  or  the  same 
blackboard  diagram,  be  used  for  both  readings? 


20 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


3.  How  might  differently  colored  chalk  aid  to  do  this? 

4.  Instead  of  indicating  the  readings  each  hour  for  a 
week,  how  may  such  a  diagram  be  made  to  show  the  average 
daily  readings  for  a  month  ? 


Ill — Cloudiness 

1.  Think  of  some  way  to  represent  on  the  blackboard  a  fine 
clear  day;  a  cloudy  day;  a  rainy  or  stormy  day. 

2.  What  colored  chalk  will  be  suitable  to  represent  each 
of  these  three  conditions  if  you  wish  to  use  colors? 

3.  If  a  square  on  the  blackboard  filled  with  hea\7,  double 
shading  lines  represents  a  stormy  day,  what  will  represent 
a  cloudy  day  ?  a  fair  day  ? 

4.  At  the  end  of  the  month,  how  may  a  large  square  be 
divided  and  marked  so  as  to  show  the  number  of  fair  days,  of 
cloudy  days,  and  of  stormy  days  in  the  month? 

5.  Make  such  a  card  at  the  end  of  each  month,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  year  fasten  them  together  and  they  will  make  a 
record  of  the  year's  cloudiness. 


September 


October 


November 


December 


Cloudiness  Represented 


The  top  space  indicates  fair  weather;  the  middle  one,  cloudy,  and  the  bottom  one  stormy. 
Twelve  of  these  squares  may  be  drawn  on  a  large  card  to  form  a  chart,  or  bound  together  as 
the  leaves  of  a  book. 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK 


2  I 


IV — Rainfall 

1.  How  may  the  amount  of  rainfall  each  month  be  repre- 
sented on  the  blackboard? 

2.  If  you  had  twelve  bottles  of  the  same  size  and  shape, 
how  could  you  represent  this  much  better? 

3.  Can  you  think  of  any  other  ways  of  representing  each 
month's  rainfall? 

Experiment. — At  the  end  of  each  month,  saw  accurately  from  the 
end  of  a  square  picket,  a  block  to  represent  exactly  the  total  rainfall  of 
the  month,  and  fasten  it  to  a  strip  of  smooth  wood — a  piece  of  lath 
will  do.  Write  the  name  of  the  month  and  the  depth  of  the  rainfall 
under  each  block.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the  strip  to  which  all  the 
blocks  are  fastened  may  be  cut  so  as  to  show  the  total  year's  rainfall. 


R.^iNFALL  Represented 

The  lower  blocks  represent  the  average  rainfall  in  Salt  Lake  City  each  month  for  thirty 
years,  beginning  on  the  left  and  with  January,  which  averages  1.44  inches,  and  ending  with 
December  on  the  right  with  an  average  ol  1.64  inches.  The  total  annual  rainfall  there  aver- 
ages 16.19  inches. 

The  upper  blocks  represent  the  rainfall  by  months  for  the  current  year,  a  new  block  be- 
ing added  by  the  pupils  at  the  end  of  each  nuntli  until  the  year's  record  is  cfimpiete.  .A 
glance  shows  how  the  rainfall  in  any  month  compares  with  the  average  for  that  month. 


2  2  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

4.  Think  of  ways  in  which  the  lengths  of  day  and  night,  the 
average  direction  of  the  wind,  and  other  things  learned 
through   observation,   may  be  represented   by  drawings  or 

objects. 

5.  Of  what  value  to  you  are  such  representations  ? 

LESSON  XII 

NATURAL  HISTORY  CALENDAR 

To  THE  Teacher. — At  the  same  time  that  the  pupils  are  studying 
the  weather,  they  should  also  obsen-e  animal  and  plant  life,  that  the  big 
relations  between  these  three  things  may  be  discovered.  Encourage 
free  discussion  in  class  of  the  observ^ations  of  the  pupils,  and  make 
a  special  detailed  study  of  any  animal,  plant,  or  condition  that  attracts 
their  attention  greatly. 

1.  What  plants  are  blooming  now?  Which  are  seeding? 
Are  any  shedding  their  leaves  ?  Bring  specimens  to  the  class 
and  discuss  them. 

2.  Which  have  already  finished  the  year's  work  and 
died? 

3.  Are  any  seeds  germinating  now?  If  so,  what  are  their 
chances  to  grow  and  mature  ?  How  came  they  to  be  so  late  ? 
Bring  samples  to  the  class. 

4.  What  fruits  are  gone?  Which  are  just  ripening?  Which 
will  keep  during  the  winter? 

5.  What  birds  are  seen  now?  Which  have  gone  for  the 
winter?  Have  any  come  to  spend  the  winter  with  us?  Men- 
tion examples. 

6.  Are  toads,  frogs,  snakes,  lizards,  etc.,  as  numerous 
now  as  in  the  summer  time?  Why?  Where  do  they  go  to 
spend  the  winter? 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK 


23 


7.  Mention  all  the  insects  that  you  can  see  to-day.  WhicJi 
have  disappeared? 

8.  What  becomes  of  most  insects  in  cold  weather?  Have 
you  seen  any  changes  taking  place  in  them? 

9.  Catch  caterpillars  and  keep  them  in  a  larvae  box  until 
they  make  their  winter  cocoons. 

If  kept  in  a  cool  place,  they  may  be  seen  to  come  out  as 
perfect  moths  or  as  beautiful  butterflies  in  the  spring. 

10.  Find  out  how  ants  and  bees  and  earthworms  pass  the 
winter,  and  when  they  disappear. 

11.  What  are  the  larger  wild  animals  doing  to  prepare  for 
winter?  Do  any  of  them  go  to  warmer  countries? 

12.  How  may  a  record  of  the  things  seen  be  kept  in  the 
most  useful  way  ?  Can  you  think  of  a  better  way  than  writing 
in  the  form  of  a  story,  the  things  seen?  Think  how  these 
facts  may  be  tabulated  so  as  to  be  seen  and  compared  at  a 
glance. 

NATURAL  HISTORY  CALENDAR,     19— 


Name. 


Date 

i 

Observation 

Where  Seen 

Condition 
What  Doing 

Remarks 

Sept. 

20 

21 

1 

2 

2 

Robins 

In  the  orchard 

Perched  in  trees 

" 

Butterfly 

On  goldenrod 

Seeking  food 

Oct. 

Choke  Cherries 

In  canyon 

Getting  riijc 

Blue  birds  had 
eaten  many 

" 

Wild  Ducks 

On  the  wing 

Flying  toward  lake 

it 

Caterpillar 

Under  fence  rail 

Making  cocoon 

Was  well  protectetl 

13.  Do  any  animals  change  their  garb  as  winter  approaches  ? 


24         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

14.  What  plants  die  in  the  fall?  What  have  such  plants 
done  to  insure  more  plants  like  them  next  year  ? 

15.  What  plants  have  roots  that  live  all  the  winter,  but  tops 
that  die? 

16.  How  are  crops  cared  for  during  the  winter?  Consider 
fruits,  vegetables,  grain,  hay,  etc. 

17.  Notice  the  many  changes  that  take  place  in  the  animals 
and  plants  around  you  during  the  fall  months,  and  tabulate 
the  most  important  things  on  the  blackboard  or  write  them 
in  your  Natural  History  Calendar. 

18.  Find  out  reasons  as  far  as  you  can  for  the  changes 
that  you  notice. 

LESSON  xin 

THE  STARS 

The  sad  and  solemn  night 
Hath  yet  her  multitude  of  cheerful  fires, 

The  glorious  hosts  of  light 
Walk  the  dark  hemisphere  till  she  retires; 
All  through  her  silent  watches,  gliding  slow, 
Her  constellations  come,  and  climb  the  heavens,  and  go. 

— Bryant 

To  THE  Teacher. — This  lesson  may  be  assigned  at  any  time  when 
clear  nights  prevail  and  recited  when  the  pupils  have  had  time  to  ob- 
serve the  stars  sufficiently.  Myths  may  be  used  in  connection  with 
Orion,   Cassiopeia,   and  other  constellations. 

1.  Are  all  the  stars  of  the  same  size?  Can  you  count  the 
stars? 

2.  How  are  they  scattered  over  the  sky?  Are  they  in  long 
rows  or  squares  or  regular  forms? 

3.  Are  all  stars  "fixed"  in  their  groups,  or  do  some  of 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL  WORK 


25 


them  move  about  among  the  other  stars  ?  Watch  some  of  the 
brightest  stars  for  a  few  weeks,  and  notice  if  any  change 
their  positions  among  the  other  stars.  Notice  especially  the 
morning  and  evening  stars. 

4.  Learn  to  name  and  locate  a  few  very  bright  stars,  as  the 
North  Star,  Sirius,  the  Geminii,  Vega,  and  the  planets.  Mars, 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  etc.,  when  they  can  be  seen. 


A  Few  of  the  Brightest  Stars  Seen  in  the  Northern  Sky 
5.  Locate  a  few  of  the  brightest  groups  of  stars,  as  the 


26         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

Big  Dipper,  Little  Dipper,  Cassiopeia,  Orion,  and  Lyra,  all 
of  which  are  in  the  northern  sky  and  may  be  seen  on  a  clear 
night. 

6.  Find  the  Milky  Way.  Why  is  it  called  the  Milky  Way  ? 
Does  it  always  cross  the  sky  in  the  same  place  ?  It  is  supposed 
to  be  made  up  mostly  of  stars  so  far  away  as  to  appear  to  us 
as  a  mass  of  light  stretching  across  the  sky. 

7.  Of  what  use  to  us  are  the  stars?  How  do  they  help 
sailors  to  tell  the  points  of  the  compass? 

8.  What  daily  motion  have  the  stars  ?  Do  they  all  rise  and 
set  like  the  sun  and  the  moon?  Watch  the  Big  Dipper;  the 
evening  star;  the  North  star. 

Stars  are  supposed  to  be  suns,  but  they  are  so  far  away  that 
even  through  the  biggest  telescope  they  seem  to  be  mere  points 
of  light.  The  nearest  star  is  so  far  away  that,  astronomers 
tell  us,  it  would  take  a  ray  of  light,  which  can  travel 
several  times  around  the  earth  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  two 
years  to  reach  us.  The  North  Star  is  so  far  away  that  it 
would  take  light  forty-seven  years  to  come  from  it  to  the 
earth;  and,  if  the  star  should  suddenly  be  destroyed,  its  light 
would  continue  to  shine  and  we  should  not  know  for  forty- 
seven  years  that  anything  had  happened  to  it. 

LESSON  XIV 
STUDY  OF  TREES— SHAPES 

To  THE  Teacher. — At  the  beginning  of  the  year,  have  the  class 
select  several  trees  and  shrubs  to  study  and  get  acquainted  with  the 
changes  that  they  pass  through  during  the  whole  year.  Choose  such 
as  have  different  habits  of  growth,  as  a  shade  tree,  a  fruit  tree,  an 
evergreen  tree,  a  shrub,  and  a  vine.      Occasionally  the  pupils  should 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK 


27 


write  a  description  of  the  changes  noticed  in  the  trees  for  a  language 
lesson,  and  draw  them  for  an  art  lesson. 

1.  Do  all  trees  have  a  similar  shape? 

2.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  shape  of  the  box 
elder  tree  and  that  of  the  Lombardy  poplar? 

3.  Describe,  or  draw  an  outline  of,  an  apple  tree;  a  pear 
tree;  a  palm;  a  pine;  an  elm. 

4.  Write  a  list  of  trees  that  are  tall  and  slim.     Write  another 
list  of  trees  that  are  low  and  spreading. 

Trees  may  be  grouped  as  to  shape  into  four  groups,  as  rep- 
resented in  the  illustration. 


Shapes  and  diameters  of  trees 

5.  Compare   the   vertical   diameters   with   the  horizontal 
ones,  and  in  each  case  notice  where  they  cross  each  other. 

6.  Mention  trees  having  shapes  similar  to  each  of  these 
types. 

7.  Is  the  shape  of  a  tree  any  advantage  to  it  ?  Why  is  a 
poplar   tree   tall   and   slim?  Where   arc   most  of   its  seeds 


28 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


formed  ?  How  are  they  scattered  ?  Docs  a  strong  wind  break 
a  poplar  tree  as  easily  as  it  does  other  trees  ? 

8.  Why  arc  most  fruit  trees  low  and  broad  ?  Why  are  their 
best  fruits  found  on  the  highest  limbs?  What  do  fruits  need 
to  make  them  develop  best  ?  Where  are  the  poorest  samples  of 
fruit  generally  found  ?  Why  ?  Think  of  reasons  for  the  shape 
of  fruit  trees,  shade  trees,  and  forest  trees  that  you  know. 

9.  Why  do  men  trim  trees  ?  What  is  the  difference  between 
a  wisely  trimmed  orchard  and  one  that  has  been  neglected  ? 


Pine  Tree  Loaded  with  Snow         Pine  Tree  Shedding  Snow 

To  be  able  to  trim  trees  properly  we  must  know  the  effect 
of  the  shape,  and  the  needs  of  the  trees  for  much  or  litde 
foliage,  and  how  to  distribute  it  to  meet  their  needs. 


FOURTH   GRADE—P^ALL   WORK 


29 


10.  Study  the  shape  of  the  pine.  Why  is  its  foliage  ar- 
ranged around  the  trunk  in  layers  that  grow  longer  and  longer 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  making  the  outer  surface  of  the 
trees  look  like  the  rows  of  shingles  on  the  roof? 

11.  Do  the  pictures  opposite  suggest  any  reason  for  the 
shape  of  pine  trees? 

12.  Why  are  cocoanuts  placed  at  the  top  of  the  tall  palms 
on  which  they  grow?  What  danger  to  the  fruit  is  thus 
overcome?  W^hen  ripe,  why  does  not  the  fruit  break  when  it 
falls  so  far  to  the  hard  ground  ?  Is  the  thick  husk  of  any  other 
use  to  the  plant  ?  How  are  cocoanut  palm  seeds  distributed  ? 
What  kinds  of  soil  do  they  like  best  ?  How  does  nature  secure 
for  them  this  kind  of  soil  in  most  cases? 

13.  What  habits  of  growth  make  the  different  shapes  of 
trees  ? 

14.  In  which  kinds  do  the  end  buds  grow  most  rapidly  ?  In 
which  kinds  do  the  side  buds  grow  fastest?  If  the  side 
and  end  buds  grow  at  the  same  rate,  what  shape  is  pro- 
duced ? 

LESSON    XV 
STUDY  OF  TREES— TRUNKS 

1.  Name  some  trees  that  have  long,  slender  trunks.  Arc 
their  branches  mostly  large  or  small?  Do  they  grow  best  in 
groves  or  singly  ?  Have  you  ever  been  in  the  woods  ?  Compare 
trees  growing  in  a  forest  with  those  growing  singly. 

2.  Of  what  use  to  a  tree  is  a  long  trunk  ?  This  use  must  be  a 
very  important  one,  as  it  costs  a  tree  many  years'  labor  to  get 
a  trunk. 


30         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

3.  What  trees  have  short,  thick  trunks?  Are  any  of  their 
branches  very  large?  Are  such  trees  found  in  dense  forests? 
Do  they  get  as  much  sunshine  as  do  tall,  slim  trees  ?  How  do 
they  get  enough  sunshine? 

4.  In  what  w^ays  are  tall,  slim  trees  of  use  to  man  ? 

5.  What  benefit  do  we  get  from  trees  having  short,  thick 
trunks  and  wide  spreading  branches? 

6.  How  do  some  plants  escape  the  labor  of  making  great 
trunks  for  themselves?  How  do  vines  get  enough  sun- 
light ? 

7.  How  do  ferns  and  mosses  get  along  with  so  little  light  as 
comes  to  them  under  the  trees? 

Experiment  1. — From  a  good  sized  limb  of  a  nearby  tree  cut  a  small 
piece  of  bark  every  week  or  two  in  the  fall,  and  see  what  changes  take 
place  in  the  bark  as  the  autumn  advances.  Find  out  just  how  the  trunk 
and  limbs  grow  thicker,  and  why  the  number  of  rings  seen  in  the  end  of 
a  tree  trunk  give  us  an  idea  of  the  age  of  the  tree. 

8.  How  do  the  trunks  of  trees  grow?  How  may  we  tell  the 
age  of  a  tree? 

9.  What  is  the  use  of  bark  on  the  trunks  of  trees? 

Experimenl.  2 — Girdle  some  useless  tree  by  removing  a  strip  of  the 
bark  from  around  the  trunk  and  note  the  effect. 

10.  Describe  the  different  layers  of  bark.  Which  part 
seems  dead?  Which  part  is  alive?  Bring  samples  of  the 
bark  of  different  trees  to  the  class. 

11.  Is  it  a  good  practice  to  hitch  a  horse  to  the  trunk  of  a 
valuable  tree? 

12.  What  trees  can  you  tell  by  their  bark? 

13.  Describe  the  bark  of  the  elm,  the  locust,  the 
poplar,  the  pine,  the  birch,  and  other  trees  that  you  have 
seen. 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL  WORK  31 

THREE  TREES 

The  pine  tree  grew  in  the  wood, 

Tapering,  straight,  and  high; 
Stately  and  proud  it  stood, 

Black-green  against  the  sky. 
Crowded  so  close,  it  sought  the  blue, 
And  ever  upward  it  reached  and  grew. 

The  oak  tree  stood  in  the  field. 

Beneath  it  dozed  the  herds; 
It  gave  to  the  mower  a  shield. 

It  gave  a  home  to  the  birds. 
Sturdy  and  broad,  it  guarded  the  farms 
With  its  brawny  trunk  and  knotted  arms. 

The  apple  tree  grew  by  the  wall. 

Ugly  and  crooked  and  black; 
But  it  knew  the  gardener's  call. 

And  the  children  rode  on  its  back. 
It  scattered  its  blossoms  upon  the  air, 
It  covered  the  ground  with  fruitage  fair. 

LESSON  XVI 

STUDY  OF  TREES— BRANCHES 

1.  What  trees  have  short  trunks  that  divide  up  into 
branches  ?  Do  such  trees  have  large  branches  ? 

2.  What  trees  have  trunks  that  extend  from  the  ground  to 
the  top  of  the  tree  ?  Are  the  branches  of  such  trees  large  or 
small  ? 

3.  Are  the  lower  branches  generally  larger  or  smaller  than 
the  upper  ones? 

4.  What  would  probably  be  the  effect  if  the  top  branches 
were  much  longer  than  the  bottom  ones? 


32 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


5.  Are  there  generally  more  branches  on  one  side  of  a  tree 
than  on  the  other?  Why  do  branches  grow  from  all  sides  of 
the  trunk? 

6.  What  trees  have  branches  that  grow  at  almost  right 
angles  with  the  trunk  ?  Which  form  an  acute  angle  with  the 
trunk?  Do  any  trees  have  branches  that  slope  downward 
from  the  trunk?  Think  of  some  purpose  in  branches  leaving 
their  trunks  in  these  three  different  directions. 

7.  What  trees  have  tough  branches?  What  trees  have 
branches  that  are  brittle? 

Experiment  i. — Take  green  Uvigs  of  about  the  same  size  from  various 
trees  near  by.  Bend  until  they  break,  and  decide  which  branches  are 
toughest. 

8.  Which  trees  need  to  be  tough?  Which  rarely  have 
any  load  to  bear?  Consider  fruit  trees,  shade  trees,  ever- 
greens, etc. 

9.  Can  you  tell  the  age  of  a  tw%?  Find  the  place  on  a  twig 
that  marks  a  year's  growth. 

10.  Examine  twigs  and  branches  and  tell  how  old  they  are 
from  the  joints  that  are  formed  each  year.  Tell  what  part 
grew  this  year;  last  year;  the  year  before. 

11.  On  twigs  from  fruit  trees  notice  the  leaf  scars  where 
leaves  used  to  be.  Observe  lilac  and  horse  chestnut  twigs. 
Also  find  places  where  fruit  used  to  be.  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  fruit  scar  and  a  leaf  scar? 

Experiment  2.— Examine  a  young  fruit  tree  and  from  the  fruit  scars 
tell  if  it  bore  this  year;  last  year;  the  year  before  last. 

Thus  the  history  of  a  tree  is  written  year  after  year  by  the 
truthful  hand  of  nature  in  its  own  self. 

12.  Are  trees  the  only  living  things  whose  works  nature 
records  within  themselves? 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK  T^T, 

13.  Is  it  of  any  value  to  us  to  be  able  to  tell  the  history  of  a 
tree? 

14.  Draw  a  twig  showing  leaf  scars,  fruit  scars,  and  one  or 
more  rings  or  joints  that  denote  a  year's  growth. 

LESSON  XVII 

STUDY  OF  TREES— LEAVES 

1.  Collect  as  many  different  kinds  of  leaves  as  you  can 
find.     Learn  to  name  each  kind  at  sight. 

Experiment. — Strip  off  all  the  leaves  from  a  small  tree  or  shrub  and 
note  the  effect.  Try  the  experiment  again  in  the  spring.  Of  what 
use  to  the  tree  are  its  leaves? 

2.  What  plants  have  the  largest  leaves  that  you  have 
seen?  What  plants  have  the  smallest  leaves?  Does  the  size 
of  the  leaf  tell  us  the  size  of  the  plant  or  tree  on  which  it 
grew? 

3.  Are  large  leaves  as  numerous  on  their  plants  as  small 
ones? 

4.  Are  all  leaves  of  the  same  shape?  Group  your  sample 
leaves  according  to  their  shapes. 

5.  Are  the  edges  of  all  leaves  the  same?  Which  are 
notched?  Which  are  plain?  What  leaves  have  pointed 
tips? 

6.  What  leaves  are  thick?  What  leaves  are  thin?  Which 
are  fuzzy?  Which  are  smooth? 

7.  Do  the  veins  of  leaves  all  run  the  same  way?  What 
leaves  have  parallel  veins?  In  what  way  do  the  veins  run  in 
the  leaves  of  the  rose?  the  geranium?  the  maple?  the 
oak?  corn?  grass? 


34         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

8.  Do  any  leaves  have  an  odor?  Mention  all  those  you 
know  that  have  one.   Of  what  use  is  this  odor  ? 

9.  What  leaves  seem  to  be  made  up  of  several  small  ones  ? 

10.  Compare  the  finely  divided  leaves  of  the  mosses,  ferns, 
and  grasses  which  are  found  in  the  forest  shade,  with  the 
leaves  of  the  larger  trees  above  .them. 

11.  Do  you  find  very  large  leaves  growing  in  very  shady 
places  ? 

12.  Notice  how  different  kinds  of  leaves  are  arranged  on 
their  twigs  or  branches.  Which  are  in  pairs  opposite  each 
other  ?  Which  are  alternate  ?  Which  grow  on  the  twig  so  as  to 
form  a  spiral  whorl  around  it? 

13.  What  is  nature's  purpose  in  thus  scattering  the  leaves 
around  on  the  twigs  and  branches  ?  Would  it  do  as  well  for  the 
leaves  all  to  grow  on  the  same  side  of  the  branch  ?  Why  not  ? 

14.  How  are  the  branches  placed  around  the  trunk?  Is 
there  a  purpose  in  their  arrangement  ?  Where  are  the  largest 
and  healthiest  leaves  found  on  a  tree  ?  Why  ? 

15.  Can  we  tell  anything  of  the  condition  of  the  tree  by  the 
appearance  of  its  leaves  ?  When  the  tree  needs  water,  how  do 
the  leaves  show  it?  If  the  roots  are  diseased,  how  do  the 
leaves  tell  us? 

16.  Examine  many  plants  and  trees  to  see  if  there  are  any 
leaves  on  them  that  the  sunshine  does  not  reach  during  some 
part  of  the  day  between  sunrise  and  sunset. 

17.  Is  the  space  between  the  trees  of  a  full-grown  orchard 
a  suitable  place  to  plant  a  garden  ?  Why  ? 

18.  Are  all  leaves  green  ?  What  is  the  color  of  birch  leaves  ? 
of  table  beet  leaves?  What  leaves  are  variegated?  Describe 
ribbon  grass.  Mention  greenhouse  plants  whose  leaves  are 
are  not  green. 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL   WORK 


00 


Name  Each  of  These  Leaves 


19.  When  do  most  leaves  begin  to  fall?  What  change  takes 
place  in  the  color  of  many  leaves  in  the  fall  of  the  year  ?  Do 


30         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

frost-bitten   leaves    have   beautiful   colors?  How   do    frost- 
bitten leaves  look  ? 

20.  Why  is  it  a  good  thing  that  the  leaves  of  most  of  our 
trees  fall?  What  would  happen  to  the  trees  during  the 
winter  if  they  kept  all  their  leaves? 

In  the  Province  of  Alberta,  Canada,  very  few  fruit  or  shade 
trees  are  grown,  because  untimely  snows  come  there  so  often 
and  are  so  hea\y  that  the  trees  are  kept  broken  down. 

21.  What  trees  are  best  suited  to  such  a  condition?  Could 
this  trouble  be  lessened  by  the  right  kind  of  pruning  ? 

22.  Draw  or  paint  different  kinds  of  leaves.  Collect 
autumn  leaves. 

LESSON   XVIII 
STUDY  OF  TREES— BUDS 

1.  Examine  leaves  just  before  they  fall.  How  does  the 
tree  get  rid  of  its  leaves  ?  Examine  with  a  lens  a  leaf  scar  where 
the  leaf  has  been  torn  off,  and  one  where  it  has  fallen  off 
naturally.  How  does  nature  heal  the  wound  in  each  case? 
Are  there  any  buds  on  the  twigs  when  the  leaves  fall? 

2.  Where  are  the  new  buds?  At  what  time  in  the  fall  do 
these  new  buds  grow  most  rapidly?  Have  the  new  buds 
anything  to  do  with  the  falling  of  the  leaves?  When  are  the 
new  buds  first  formed  ? 

3.  Did  all  the  buds  that  formed  last  year  grow  into  leaves 
this  year?  Examine  many  twigs  and  branches  and  tell  what 
part  of  the  buds  formed  last  year  failed  to  grow  this  year. 
Did  those  that  grew  have  any  advantage  over  those  that  did 
not  grow? 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL  WORK  37 

Experiment. — jSIark  some  buds  this  fall  that  you  think,  will  not  grow 
and  see  in  the  spring  if  your  judgment  was  good. 

4.  Why  does  not  careless  hoeing  kill  the  weeds?  Pull  up 
several  kinds  of  weeds  by  the  roots,  and  see  if  you  can  tell 
how  low  down  new  buds  will  grow  if  the  top  is  cut  off  ?  How 
will  this  knowledge  aid  us  in  hoeing  a  garden  ? 

5.  Examine  many  kinds  of  buds.  How  are  they  covered  ? 
Why  are  some  covered  with  scales?  Why  are  others  fuzzy? 
Has  the  bitter  gum  on  some  of  them  any  use  ? 

6.  Consider  the  coverings  of  buds  in  relation  to  insects, 
frost,  rain,  snow,  and  other  dangers. 

LESSON  XIX 

STUDY  OF  TREES— ROOTS 

1.  What  direction  do  the  roots  of  a  sprouting  plant  always 
take?  Where  are  most  roots  found? 

2.  Bring  to  class  samples  of  different  kinds  of  roots.  In 
taking  them  from  the  ground,  avoid  breaking  otT  the  fme 
hair-like  rootlets.  Wash  the  roots  clean  and  examine  them 
with  a  lens. 

3.  Compare  the  roots  with  the  tops  of  plants.  Do  roots 
differ  in  shape?  What  roots  have  a  single  large  part  going 
downward  with  many  small  roots  growing  out  from  it?  This 
is  called  a  taproot;  it  may  be  compared  to  what  kind  of 
tree  trunk?" 

4.  What  roots  form  a  bushy  mass  in  ihe  soil?  These  are 
fibrous  roots,  and  look  like  the  lop  of  what  plants? 

5.  Do  roots  have  a  bark  or  outer  protecting  covering  :■- 


38         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

6.  Why  are  weeds  so  hard  to  pull  from  the  garden  ?  Why  is 
it  a  good  thing  for  the  plant  to  be  held  so  firmly  in  the  soil  by 
its  roots? 

7.  What  happens  to  a  plant  if  its  roots  are  killed  ?  What  is 
the  chief  use  of  roots  to  a  plant  ?  Mention  other  uses  of  roots. 

8.  What  care  should  be  taken  of  the  roots  in  setting  out 
trees  and  shrubs?  How  should  the  ground  be  prepared  to 
receive  the  roots  of  trees  being  transplanted? 

9.  Why  should  most  of  the  branches  be  cut  off  when  a  tree 
is  transplanted?  Can  the  roots  work  as  well  at  first  in  the 
new  place  as  in  the  old  one  ? 

10.  How  far  from  a  tree  or  plant  have  you  seen  its  roots  go 
for  food? 

1 1 .  How  deep  hiave  you  seen  roots  grow  downward  into  the 
ground  ? 

As  stems  and  leaves  often  bend  toward  the  light,  so  roots 
will  grow  in  the  direction  of  food  and  water. 

12.  Have  you  seen  them  do  this?  Where? 

13.  Which  plants  have  more  and  longer  roots,  those  grow- 
ing in  marshy  places  or  those  growing  in  a  dry  or  desert 
place?  Compare  the  total  roots  of  a  water  cress  plant  with 
those  of  a  wheat  plant.     Account  for  what  you  find. 

On  one  barley  plant,  one  hundred  eighty  feet  of  roots  have 
been  measured,  and  the  roots  of  the  sage  brush  are  known 
to  go  twenty-five  feet  downward.  The  sand  covering  the 
roots  of  a  cottonwood  tree,  near  Lake  Michigan,  has  been 
blown  away,  leaving  the  roots  bare,  and  making  a  great  sand 
dune  just  beyond.  One  root,  less  than  an  inch  in  diameter 
where  it  leaves  the  trunk,  measures  more  than  eighty  feet  in 
length  before  it  reaches  a  place  where  it  has  not  been  un- 
covered.    It  is  here  more  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter  and 


FOURTH  GRADE-FALL  WORK 


39 


may  extend  as  much  farther  into  the  sand.  Usually,  however, 
roots  do  not  extend  far  beyond  the  shade  cast  by  the  branches, 
nor  do  they  go  very  deep. 

14.  Look  for  roots  in  river   banks,  washes,    and   where 
men  are  digging  foundations,  cellars,  etc. 

15.  What  insects  injure  the  roots  of  trees?  Describe  any 
you  may  have  seen. 

16.  Have  you  seen  tree  roots  that  were  diseased?  Which 


of  the  apple  tree  roots  in  the  illustration   is  healthy,  and 
which  is  diseased?  How  can  you  tell? 


THE  TREE 


I  love  thee  when  the  swelling  buds  appear, 
And  one  by  one  their  tender  leaves  unfold, 
As  if  they  knew  that  warmer  suns  were  near. 
Nor  longer  sought  to  hide  from  winter's  cold; 
And  when  with  darker  growth  thy  leaves  are  seen 
To  veil  from  view  the  early  robin's  nest, 


40         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

I  love  to  lie  beneath  thy  waving  screen, 

With  limbs. by  summer's  heat  and  toil  oppressed; 

And  when  the  autumn  winds  have  stripped  thee  bare, 

And  round  thee  lies  smooth,  untrodden  snow, 

When  naught  is  there  that  made  thee  once  so  fair, 

I  love  to  watch  thy  shadowy  form  below. 

And  through  thy  leafless  arms  to  look  above 

On  stars  that  brighter  beam  when  most  we  need  their  love. 

— Jones  Very 

LESSON  XX 

PLANT  RELATIONS  TO  WATER 

To  THE  Teacher. — This  lesson  should  be  preceded  by  a  field  lesson, 
or  excursion  to  places  where  the  pupils  can  see  both  marsh  plants  and 
those  that  grow  in  the  driest  regions  accessible  to  the  school.  The  natural 
relations  and  environment  of  both  kinds  can  thus  be  studied  and  samples 
of  plants  secured  for  use  in  the  schoolroom. 

1.  How  do  the  roots  of  marsh  plants  compare  with  those 
of  desert  plants  in  number?  in  size?  Which  are  the  longer 
and  go  down  into  the  soil  farther  ?  Can  you  give  a  reason  for 
any  of  the  differences  that  you  find  ? 

2.  Which  have  many  long,  fine,  dry,  tough  roots?  Which 
have  short,  thick,  moist,  tender  roots?  Which  need  the 
greater  amount  of  roots,  marsh  or  desert  plants? 

A  class  in  one  of  the  schools  of  the  arid  west  dug  up  an 
Indian  simflower  having  only  a  small  top  with  half  a  dozen 
blossoms.  The  mass  of  roots  extended  six  feet  into  the 
groimd  and  weighed  many  times  that  of  the  top. 

3.  Why  are  the  leaves  of  the  dry  land  plants  so  often  few 
in  number  and  long,  slender,  dry,  and  fuzzy  or  scaly  ? 

4.  Compare  them  with  water  plants  and  account  for  the 
differences. 


FOURTH   GRADE— FALL  WORK  41 

5.  Mention  other  differences  in  these  two  kinds  of  ).>lants  ? 

Experiment. — Take  equal  weights  of  water  cress  leaves  and  those  of 
sagebrush.  Dry  them  thoroughly  and  weigh  them  again.  This  will 
show  which  kind  contains  the  more  water. 

7.  Mention  some  plants  that  use  much  water. 

8.  Mention  others  that  need  but  h'ttle  moisture. 

9.  What  features  do  most  water  plants  have  ? 

10.  Describe  in  a  general  way  the  roots,  stems,  and  leaves 
of  desert  plants. 

11.  Can  you  tell  by  the  looks  of  a  plant  whether  it  needs 
much  or  little  moisture?  How? 

12.  What  crops  grow^  in  marshy  places? 

13.  What  crops  are  raised  in  arid  regions? 

14.  Which  of  the  following  plants  need  much  water  and 
which  will  thrive  with  but  little — rice?  corn?  rye?  celery? 
cabba.s:e?  wheat? 


LESSON  XXI 

SAGE  BRUSH 

To  THE  Teacher. — Where  sagebrush  is  not  found,  choose  another 
shrub  or  weed  growing  near  the  school  and  have  its  uses  studied  in  a 
similar  way. 

Sagebrush  is  a  common  plant  throughout  the  western 
half  of  the  United  States,  and  has  done  so  much  for  the 
farmer  that  its  work  and  nature  should  be  known. 

1.  Bring  samples  of  sagebrush  to  class  to  study. 

2.  How  large  is  the  sagebrush  ?  What  is  its  shape  ? 

3.  Describe  its  leaves.     What  is  their  size?  shape?  color? 

4.  Is  their  surfa.ee  smooth  or  fuzzy  ?  Do  many  leaves  grow 
on  one  bush? 


42 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


5.  Is  sagebrush  an  evergreen,  or  does  it  shed  its  leaves  in 

the  fall  ? 

6.  Account  for  the  dry,  brittle  nature  of  the  stem,  twigs, 

and  leaves. 

7.  Note  how  the  fallen  leaves  collect  at  the  base  and  mix 


A  Sagebrush  Plain 

with  the  soil.     What  effect  will  this  action  have,  in  time,  upon 
the  soil  of  an  area  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  sagebrush  ? 

8.  Examine  the  root.  As  the  great  number  of  small  root 
fibers  enter  the  soil  and  after  doing  their  work  die  and  decay, 
what  effect  will  they  cause  in  the  soil? 

9.  Study  the  seeds.  What  can  you  say  of  their  size  and 
number  ?  How  are  they  scattered  ?  Do  many  of  them  grow  ? 

10.  Does  sagebrush  grow  alone  or  do  the  plants  grow  in 
great  numbers  together? 

11.  How  do  men  clear  off  sagebrush  when  they  wish  to 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  43 

cultivate  the  soil  on  which  it  is  found?  Why  can  they  burn  it 
off  more  easily  than  other  shrubs? 

The  leaves  and  seeds  of  sagebrush  are  often  used  for 
medicine,  but  the  plant's  greatest  good  to  man  is  its  enriching 
of  the  soil. 

12.  What  other  plants  help  to  make  soil  rich  ? 

13.  What  domestic  animal  uses  sagebrush  for  food?  Be- 
cause of  this  it  is  a  great  source  of  wealth  to  whom? 

14.  W^hy  are  not  the  great  sagebrush  covered  plains  and 
hills  used  for  a  summer  range  as  well  as  for  a  winter  range  ? 

FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 

LESSON  XXII 
SNOW 

1.  What  conditions  indicate  the  approach  of  a  snow 
storm  ?    Consider  the  wands,  the  clouds,  the  temperature,  etc. 

2.  When  does  the  first  snow  usually  come  in  your  vicinity? 
How  long  does  winter  last  ? 

3.  What  determines  the  length  of  winter  in  different  parts 
of  our  country? 

Experiment. — When  it  snows,  watch  the  flakes  as  they  fall.  Catch 
them  on  a  cold  slate  or  a  dark-colored  cloth  and  examine  them  with  a 
lens,  before  they  melt. 

4.  Have  the  flakes  any  common  shape?  Examine  the 
largest  and  most  perfect  flakes  you  can  catch.  Compare 
them  with  hoar  frost. 

5.  Tell  how  they  are  formed.  Draw  several  different 
flakes  having  different  forms. 


44         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

6.  Where  does  most  snow  fall,  in  the  valleys  or  on  the 
mountains  ?  Why  ?  Is  this  a  wise  provision  ?  Why  ? 

7.  Describe  how  snow  accumulates  in  the  mountains. 

8.  Have  you  ever  seen  snow  slide  off  a  steep  roof?  W^hat 
causes  it  to  do  so? 

9.  Account  for  snowslides  or  avalanches  in  mountainous 
regions. 

10.  W^here  do  they  often  occur?   Why? 

11.  Describe  a  snowslide.  What  harm  do  snowslides  often 
do  to  people  ?  to  railroads  ?  to  trees  ? 

12.  When  does  the  snow  stored  in  the  mountains  melt?  At 
what  temperature  does  snow  melt? 

13.  Where  does  it  never  melt? 

14.  Have  you  ever  seen  snow  in  summer  ? 

15.  When  do  the  snows  in  the  mountams  melt  most 
rapidly  ?  How  does  this  affect  the  size  of  the  rivers  ? 

16.  If  all  the  snow  were  to  melt  as  soon  as  warm  weather 
comes,  what  harm  would  result  ? 

17.  What  good  comes  to  us  because  the  great  deposits  of 
snow  melt  slowly  during  much  of  the  year  ? 

18.  What  feeds  the  streams  and  springs  during  the  sum- 
mer ? 

19.  In  countries  where  it  never  snows,  they  have  a  wet  and 
a  dry  season  instead  of  winter  and  summer.  How  do  you 
think  their  streams  compare  with  ours?  Why  do  the  people 
there  often  suffer  for  water? 

20.  Why  do  the  people  who  live  in  the  arid  regions  of  the 
United  States  always  like  to  see  an  abundance  of  snow  each 
winter  stored  in  the  mountains? 

21.  Why  are  most  of  the  towns  there  situated  near  high 
mountains  ? 


FOURTH   GRADE— WINTER   WORK  45 

22.  In  time  of  high  water,  when  the  snows  meh  most 
rapidly,  are  the  streams  clear  or  muddy? 

23.  What  will  be  the  effect  upon  the  land  to  irrigate  it 
frequently  with  this  muddy  water? 

Note. — Irrigated  land  rarely  becomes  exhausted.  New  material  is 
added  each  time  it  is  irrigated.  In  fact,  often  the  farmers  will  turn  a 
large  muddy  stream  of  water  over  a  poor  piece  of  land,  and,  as  the  water 
spreads  over  it  and  sinks  downward  into  the  ground,  a  layer  of  the  richest 
soil  is  deposited  on  the  surface.  The  author  has  seen  soil  eighteen  inches 
deep  form.ed  in  this  way. 


LESSON  XXIII 
PREHENSION  OF  FOOD 

1 .  Can  any  animals  live  long  without  eating  ? 

2.  Mention  different  kinds  of  food  that  are  eaten  by 
different  animals. 

3.  What  animals  live  chiefly  upon  plants?  What  plants 
are  raised  by  man  chiefly  to  feed  to  animals  ? 

4.  Animals  that  live  upon  plants,  or  herbs,  are  called 
herbivorous  animals.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  herbhorous  ani- 
mals that  you  know. 

5.  What  animals  cannot  eat  vegetation?  Which  of  these 
live  upon  the  flesh  of  other  animals?  Make  a  list  of  those 
you  know.     These  are  called  carnivorous  animals. 

6.  What  animals  live  upon  insects?  Make  a  list  oiinsectiv- 
orous  animals. 

7.  Name  animal  foods  that  grow  near  the  ground;  that 
grow  on  trees;  that  are  found  in  the  water. 


46         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

8.  Do  any  animals  find  their  food  in  the  mud?  What 
animals  catch  their  food  in  the  air? 

9.  Mention  other  places  where  animals  find  their  food. 

10.  Describe  the  different  ways  that  animals  have  of 
seizing  their  food  and  putting  it  into  their  mouths. 

11.  How  does  man  convey  his  food  to  his  mouth?  Could 
he  feed  himself  without  hands  ?  Describe  a  babe's  efforts 
in  learning  to  do  this. 

12.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  animals  you  know  that  use  their 
hands  or  fore  limbs  in  the  act  of  eating.  Describe  their 
movements  in  eating. 

13.  What  animals  do  not  use  their  fore  limbs  in  getting 
their  food?  How  do  they  get  their  food  into  their  mouths? 
Discuss  in  detail  several  common  animals  in  this  respect. 

14.  What  does  the  horse  eat  when  in  the  wild  or  natural 
state?  How  does  he  get  his  food  into  his  mouth?  How  does 
a  cow  do  this  ?  What  is  the  shape  of  the  horse's  head  ?  Where 
is  his  mouth?  How  does  the  length  of  his  neck  correspond 
with  that  of  his  legs?  How  do  all  these  things  enable  the 
horse  to  feed  ?  If  his  legs  were  as  long  as  those  of  the  giraffe, 
could  he  live  upon  his  present  kind  of  food  ?  What  would  be 
the  result  if  the  horse's  neck  were  as  short  as  the  hog's? 

15.  How  does  a  horse  drink?  Can  you  tell  how  he  makes 
the  water  run  up  his  neck  ? 

16.  Tell  in  like  manner  how  the  following  animals  get 
their  food  and  eat  it,  considering  the  shape  of  the  head,  the 
mouth  parts,  the  ability  to  reach  and  seize  food,  the  kinds  of 
food  that  they  eat,  and  the  places  and  conditions  where  each 
kind  is  found: — the  sheep,  the  cat,  the  chicken,  the  duck, 
the  woodpecker,  the  toad,  the  fly,  the  mosquito,  and  any 
other  animals  that  you  have  seen  eating. 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  \^^ORK        47 

17.  From  what  you  have  seen  in  the  menageries  or  learned 
in  other  ways,  tell  how  the  following  animals  get  their  food 
and  put  it  into  their  mouths: — the  elephant,  the  giraffe,  the 
eagle,  the  crane,  the  kingfisher,  the  alligator,  the  codfish. 

18.  Why  can  sheep  "run  out"  horses  and  cattle  on  a 
range  ?  Which  eat  the  grass  off  closer  to  the  ground  ?  Why  ? 

19.  Could  a  cat  and  a  rabbit  exchange  kinds  of  food  and 
hunting  grounds,  and  survive  ? 

20.  Can  you  think  of  a  wise  purpose  in  nature  for  having  all 
these  dift'erent  animals  made  so  that  each  kind  gets  its  food 
in  a  different  way? 

21.  Can  you  tell  by  an  animal's  mouth  parts  anything 
about  the  kind  of  food  it  eats?  Explain. 

LESSON  XXIV 
ADAPTATIONS  FOR  FOOD  GETTING 

1.  Bring  to  class  the  heads  and  feet  of  any  birds  or 
animals  that  can  be  secured  without  killing  them  for  the 
purpose.  From  the  fish  or  game  market,  specimens  may  be 
obtained  for  study.    - 

2.  Study  tame  animals  at  home  or  stuffed  specimens  at 
school  to  learn  of  the  ways  in  which  different  animals  are 
adapted  to  get  their  food. 

Suppose  we  study  the  duck  and  the  owl  from  the  samples. 

3.  What  is  the  food  of  the  wild  duck?  Where  is  this  food 
found  ? 

4.  How  is  a  duck's  bill  adapted  to  scoop  up  insect  food 
found  in  the  mud  ?  Examine  carefully  the  duck's  mouth. 

5.  What  is  the  use  of  the  saw-like  teeth?  Are  they  fitted  to 


48 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


chew  food?  Have  you  ever  heard  a  duck  "smack  his  Hps" 
after  probing  in  the  mud  for  a  time  ?  He  seems  to  be  washing 
the  mud  out  of  his  mouth  and  straining  the  water  through 
his  teeth,  that  the  larvcE,  or  insects,  caught  in  the  mud  may 
not  escape. 

6.  Why  does  not  water  wet  the  duck's  feathers?  Compare 
them  with  the  feathers  of  the  owl.  Have  you  seen  ducks 
preening  their  feathers?  They  cover  them  with  oil  which 
makes  them  waterproof. 

7.  Do  ducks  make  much  noise  in  flight?  Would  a  noise 
frighten  away  their  food?  Is  the  color  of  the  duck's  feathers 
of  any  advantage? 

8.  Describe  the  duck's  feet.  How  do  they  aid  the  duck 
when  hunting  for  food  ?  Can  the  duck  see  when  his  head  is 
under  water? 

9.  Why  is  his  body  boat-shaped?  Why  are  the  legs  so 
short  and  placed  so  far  toward  the  rear  of  the  body  ? 

10.  Compare  the  movements  of  a  duck  on  land,  in  water, 
and  in  the  air. 

11.  Why  do  ducks  need  to  swim  and  dive  well?  Do  they 
spend  much  time  on  the  land?  Why  are  ducks  good  flyers? 

12.  Do  wild  ducks  migrate?  How  and  where  do  they  rear 
their  young? 

13.  Are  they  ever  hunted  for  sport?  During  what  months? 
Why? 

14.  Tell  what  you  know  of  the  habits  of  tame  ducks. 
What  do  they  eat? 

15.  Is  the  owl  a  useful  or  a  harmful  bird?  What  is  his 
food? 

16.  When  does  the  owl  search  for  his  food?  Describe  his 
eyes. 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK        49 

17.  Describe  the  beak  of  the  owl.  How  is  it  adapted  to  aid 
him  in  getting  his  food? 

18.  Describe  the  owl's  feathers.  Why  are  they  so  soft  and 
fluffy?  Is  his  flight  noisy  or  silent?  How  does  this  aid  him  in 
getting  his  food? 

19.  Is  the  owl's  color  any  advantage  ? 

20.  Tell  how  the  owl's  feet  help  him  in  securing  his  prey. 
Would  the  duck's  feet  serve  the  owl's  needs  ? 

21.  How  may  the  head  and  feet  of  a  bird  tell  us  what  he 

eats? 

22.  Examine  ah  the  specimens  before  the  class,  and  tell 
what  kind  of  food  each  animal  eats  as  shown  by  its  mouth 
parts,  its  feet,  and  other  parts  of  its  body. 

LESSON  XXV 
THE  SKELETON 

1.  What  animals  have  soft,  fleshy  bodies  without  any 
bones  ?  Make  a  list  of  all  such  animals  that  you  know. 

2.  Describe  their  movements.  Do  they  run  fast  or  crawl 
slowly?  Do  any  of  them  fly?  Do  any  swim?  How  do  they 
contrive  to  move? 

3.  What  animals  have  a  hard,  bony  covering  on  the 
outside?  Make  a  list  of  those  that  you  know.  Arc  their 
movements  quick  or  slow?  Describe  the  movements  of 
several  of  them. 

4.  What  animals  have  a  bony  skeleton  within  their  bodies? 
Make  a  list  of  those  that  you  know.  Compare  their  mo\'e- 
ments  with  those  of  the  other  two  kinds.  How  do  these 
animals  contrive  t()  move? 


50  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

Experiment  i. — Bend  your  arm  slowly  at  the  elbow,  and  answer  the 
following  questions  from  your  own  observations: 

5.  What  muscle  makes  the  arm  bend  at  the  elbow  ?  We 
call  this  the  biceps  muscle.  How  does  this  muscle  act  to 
cause  this  motion?  If  there  were  no  bones  in  the  forearm, 
could  the  movement  be  made  in  this  way?  How  are  the 
bones  of  the  forearm  joined  to  the  one  in  the  upper  arm? 
This  kind  of  joint  is  called  a  hinge  joint.  Why  is  it  so 
called  ?  Could  this  motion  be  made  if  there  wxre  no  joint  at 
the  elbow  ?  Does  the  biceps  muscle  have  to  shorten  much  to 
move  the  hand  as  far  as  it  can  go  ?  Explain  why  this  is.  What 
muscle  straightens  the  arm?  It  is  called  the  triceps  muscle. 
Describe  its  action. 

6.  How  many  movements  can  be  made  with  a  hinge 
joint  ? 

7.  Are  all  the  joints  hinge  joints?  Name  all  the  hinge 
joints  that  you  can  find  in  your  body. 

8.  How  many  kinds  of  movements  can  be  made  at  the 
shoulder?  Is  this  a  hinge  joint? 

Movement  in  many  directions  is  secured  by  a  hall  and 
socket  joint.  The  upper  end  of  the  arm  bone  is  round  like  a 
ball,  and  fits  into  a  socket  in  the  end  of  the  shoulder  blade. 

9.  Can  you  find  another  ball  and  socket  joint  in  your 
body  ? 

10.  What  kind  of  joints  have  we  at  the  knee?  at  the 
wrist?  at  the  hip?  at  the  knuckles? 

11.  How  do  the  bones  aid  in  the  movements  at  these 
joints  ? 

12.  Do  swift  animals  have  long  and  slim  bones,  or  short 
and  thick  ones?  Why?  Compare  a  race  horse  with  a  draft 
horse;  a  deer  with  an  ox;  a  hawk  with  a  hen. 


FOURTH  GRADE -WINTER  WORK  51 

13.  Are  all  the  bones  in  the  body  used  in  causing  motion  ? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  bones  of  the  skull  ?  of  the  ribs  ?  of  the 
bones  of  the  face?  of  the  backbone?  How  many  different 
uses  have  the  bones  of  our  bodies  ? 

Experiment  2. — Place  a  slender  bone  in  weak  muriatic  acid  anri 
another  in  a  hot  fire  for  a  time,  and  note  the  effects.  The  acid  will 
dissolve  the  lime,  or  mineral  matter,  out  of  one  bone,  and  the  fire  will 
burn  all  the  gristle,  or  animal  matter,  out  of  the  other.  The  first  can 
then  be  bent  or  even  tied  in  a  knot,  while  the  latter  is  very  brittle. 

14.  Why  may  a  child  fall  many  times  without  breaking  a 
bone,  while  an  aged  person  is  so  apt  to  break  one  in  falling  ? 

15.  Why  do  bones  need  to  be  tough  in  childhood  and 
rigid  in  old  age?  What  gives  toughness  to  the  bones?  What 
makes  them  hard  and  rigid? 

16.  At  what  time  in  life  are  bones  most  easily  bent  and 
made  to  grow  in  a  wrong  shape?  Would  it  injure  an  old 
person  as  much  as  it  would  a  young  child  to  sit  long  in  a  wrong 
position  ? 

17.  Should  a  baby  be  urged  to  walk  when  very  young? 
Why  not?  Should  small  children  in  school  sit  on  a  seat  so 
high  that  their  feet  will  dangle?  What  may  result  from  this 
error  in  time? 

18.  What  will  be  the  result  if  children  wear  shoes  or 
clothes  that  are  too  tight?  How  are  the  feet  of  Chinese  women 
deformed?  Could  this  be  done  in  old  age  ?  Why? 

Some  savage  tribes  think  a  flat  forehead  and  a  sloping 
head  beautiful,  and  place  their  infants'  heads  in  an  angle 
between  two  boards  that  are  fastened  together  at  one  end,  in 
such  a  way  as  to  flatten  the  forehead  and  back  of  the  head, 
making  a  sharp  point  or  edge  at  the  crown. 

19.  Could  the  shape  of  a  man's  head  be  changed  so  easily  ? 


52  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

LESSON     XXVI 

HEAT— TEMPERATURE  SENSE 

Experiment. — Get  three  vessels  of  water — one  very  cold,  one  very 
warm,  and  one  temperate  (about  70°).  Place  the  right  hand  in  the  warm 
water  and  the  left  hand  in  the  cold  water.  Keep  them  there  for  a  few 
minutes. 

Take  the  hand  from  the  warm  water  and  place  it  quickly  into  the 
temperate  water.  How  does  the  latter  feel  to  it?  Next  take  the  other 
hand  from  the  cold  water  and  place  it  in  the  temperate  water.  How 
does  it  feel  to  this  hand  ? 

1.  One  hand  says  that  the  temperate  water  is  cold;  the 
other  hand  says  that  it  is  warm.  Which  hand  tells  the 
truth?  Explain. 

2.  Notice  carefully  what  takes  place  with  each  hand 
during  this  experiment.  When  the  hand  was  placed  in  the 
hot  water,  what  happened  to  the  heat  in  that  hand  ?  When  it 
was  taken  from  the  hot  water  and  placed  in  the  temperate 
water,  did  it  lose  or  gain  heat?  Did  the  other  hand  lose 
or  gain  heat  when  placed  in  the  ice  water?  in  the  temperate 
water  ? 

3.  When  heat  is  going  out  of.  our  bodies,  how  do  we  feel? 
When  it  is  entering  our  bodies,  how  do  we  feel  ? 

4.  How  might  a  good  closed  barn  feel  to  a  man  who 
had  ridden  a  long  distance  in  a  blizzard?  How  would 
the  same  barn  feel  to  a  man  who  had  just  left  a  warm 
fire? 

5.  Give  other  examples  where  the  same  temperature 
might  be  described  as  both  cold  and  warm. 

6.  Can  we  always  judge  temperature  accurately?  What 
instrument  do  we  use  to  do  this? 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  53 

LESSON     XXVII 

HEAT— SENSE  TRAINING 

To  THE  Teacher. — Perform  the  following  experiment  in  the  class 
and  continue  as  long  as  necessary  the  training  of  the  temperature  sense. 
It  will  soon  become  quite  accurate. 

Let  the  pupils  feel  and  judge  the  tempera'ture  of  a  vessel  of  water 
150°  F.  Add  cold  water  until  it  is  130°  F.  and  let  them  judge  again. 
Continue  reducing  the  temperature  20°  at  a  time,  letting  the  pupils  feel 
of  it  and  judge  each  time,  verifying  each  judgment  with  a  thermometer. 

In  like  manner  begin  with  ice  water  and  raise  its  temperature  20*^  af 
a  time  by  adding  boiling  water.  Let  the  pupils  feel  and  judge  the  tem- 
perature each  time  and  verify  as  before. 

Repeat  the  experiment  each  day  for  a  time,  first  changing  the  tem- 
perature only  10°  at  a  time,  then  only  5°;  until  the  pupils  learn  to  judge 
with  considerable  accuracy  the  temperature  of  liquids. 

1.  Of  what  value  is  our  temperature  sense  to  us  ? 

2.  In  what  ways  does  it  guard  our  health  ?  our  life  ? 

3.  From  what  injuries  does  it  keep  us? 

4.  What  things  might  we  swallow  or  handle  that  would  do 
us  harm  but  for  the  pain  they  cause  by  burning  us  ? 

5.  In  what  ways  is  a  well-trained  temperature  sense  useful 
in  cooking  ?  in  other  kinds  of  housework  ? 

6.  How  is  this  sense  useful  to  the  physician  ? 

7.  What  tradesmen  need  it  in  their  work  ? 

8.  Judge  the  temperature  of  the  air  each  time  before  you 
look  at  the  thermometer,  and  learn  to  tell  how  cold  or  warm 
it  is  by  your  own  feelings. 

9.  Which  was  colder,  yesterday  or  to-day?  this  week  or 
last,  and  how  much?  After  judging,  look  at  your  record  and 
see  how  nearly  correct  you  are. 


54 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


-100-1 


■80- 


60- 


40- 


-20- 


-0- 


20- 


40 


hOO|2l2 
200 


«     180 

80—  -A 


■160- 


60-140- 


120- 


■40 


•100- 


-20- 


■20- 


_  _-20 


40-40. 


-80- 


-60 


-40i 
ho -^32" 


20 


-0- 


212- 


32' 


-0- 


40 


LESSON  XXVIII 
HEAT— MEASUREMENTS 

1.  Why  do  we  need  a  thermometer  in 
the  schoolroom? 

2.  For  what  does  a  doctor  use  one? 

3.  Why  do  men  sometimes  hang  ther- 
mometers among  the  trees  of  their  orchards  ? 

4.  Did  you  ever  use  a  thermometer  in 
making  candy  ? 

5.  Tell  as  many  uses  as  you  can  of  the 
thermometer  and  why  one  is  needed  in  each 
case. 

Experiment. — Breathe  upon  the  bulb  of  a  ther- 
mometer, and  note  what  happens.  Why  does  the 
mercury  rise?  Place  the  bulb  in  cold  water.  What 
happens?     Explain  the  action  of  the  thermometer. 


6.  What  other  things  have  we  studied  that 
expand  with  heat  and  grow  smaller  with  cold? 

7.  Study  the  scale  on  the  thermometer. 
Where  is  freezing  point?  blood  heat?  boiling 
point?  How  can  you  test  if  these  points  are 
correct  ? 

About  two  centuries  ago,  a  German 
named  Farenheit  invented  the  thermometer 
most  commonly  used.  He  marked  the  freez- 
ing point  of  ice  32°  above  o,  thinking  that 
there  was  no  heat  below  o.  The  temperature  of  our  blood 
he  made  98°,  and  that  of  boiling  water,  212°.  Many  cheap 
therrnometers  are  not  made  to  test  the  boiling  point. 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  55 

Another  method  of  marking  the  same  temperatures  is  used 
in  the  Centigrade  thermometer,  which  is  much  easier.  The 
temperature  of  melting  ice  is  marked  o,  and  that  of  boiling 
water,  ioo°.     These  two  natural  points  are  easily  tested. 

8.  From  the  illustration  learn  to  compare  the  two  gradings. 
How  many  degrees  are  there  between  freezing  point  and 
boiling  point  in  the  F.  thermometer?  in  the  C.  thermom- 
eter ? 

9.  Which  is  greater,  one  degree  C.  or  one  degree  F.  ?  How 
much? 

LESSON  XXIX 
HEAT— NATURAL  SOURCES 

1.  Where  does  the  earth  get  most  of  its  heat  ? 

2.  Do  we  get  the  same  amount  of  heat  from  the  sun  at  all 
times  ?  What  parts  of  the  day  are  coldest  ?  warmest  ? 

3.  What  part  of  the  year  is  warmest ?  coldest? 

4.  From  what  you  have  already  learned,  can  you  give  any 
reasons  for  the  changes  in  the  amount  of  heat  that  we  get 
from  the  sun  at  different  times  ? 

5.  Do  we  get  any  heat  from  the  moon  ?  from  the  stars  ? 

6.  Where  does  the  snow  melt  first — on  a  mountain,  or  in  a 
valley?  Why  is  there  so  much  more  snow  on  a  mountain 
than  in  the  valley? 

7.  Why  do  many  people  spend  the  hottest  weeks  in  summer 
at  some  mountain  resort? 

8.  What  changes  in  temperature  do  balloonists  tell  us  take 
place  as  they  rise  higher  and  higher  ? 

The  heat  of  the  sun  strikes  the  earth  and  collects  near  its 


56  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

surface  very  much  the  same  as  it  collects  and  warms  the 
air  on  the  sunny  side  of  a  building  in  the  winter.  The 
further  we  go  from  the  surface  that  reflects  the  heat,  the 
colder  it  becomes. 

9.  State  one  reason,  then,  why  hills  and  mountains,  being 
above  the  general  surface  of  the  earth,  are  cooler  than  the 
the  lower  places? 

10.  Would  the  thin  air  of  the  upper  regions  hold  warmth 
as  well  as  the  heavier  air  near  the  ground  ? 

11.  If  you  lived  by  the  sea  and  near  where  a  great  current  of 
warm  water  coming  from  near  the  equator  flows,  how  do 
you  think  that  this  current  might  influence  the  temperature 
near  your  home  ? 

The  gulf  stream  is  such  a  current  and  makes  some  coun- 
tries much  warmer  than  they  would  be  without  it. 

12.  Do  winds  influence  temperature?  What  winds  near 
your  home  are  generally  cold  ?  which  are  warm  ? 

1 1 .  Are  some  soils  warmer  than  others  ? 

Experiment. — Take  a  chalk  box  filled  with  sand  and  another  filled 
with  clay  dust,  and  place  them  in  the  sun.  Both  should  have  the  same 
temperature  at  first.     Test  them  at  intervals  with  a  thermometer. 

12.  Which  draws  more  heat  from  the  sun,  sand  or 
clay? 

13.  Explain  the  expressions  "burning  sands"  and  "as  cold 
as  clay." 

14.  Why  are  some  soils  spoken  of  as  "  warm  soils  ?  "  W^hich 
will  produce  the  earlier  radishes,  sandy  soil  or  clayey  soil  ? 
Which  kind  of  soil  would  a  market  gardener  prefer? 

15.  Mention  all  the  things  you  can  that  influence  tempera- 
ture. 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  57 

LESSON  XXX 
HEAT-COMBUSTION 

1.  Does  the  sun  furnish  us  with  all  the  heat  that  we  need? 
For  what  purposes  do  we  need  more  heat  than  the  sun  gives 
us  ?  How  do  we  make  heat  for  these  needs  ? 

2.  What  things  are  used  for  fuel?  Bring  for  the  school 
cabinet  samples  of  fuel — coal,  coke,  wood,  charcoal,  peat,  etc. 

In  some  places  gas  and  crude  petroleum  are  used  for  fuel. 
Gasoline  and  alcohol  also  are  sometimes  burned  to  make 
heat. 

3.  Which  is  the  most  common  fuel?  Where  does  the  coal 
burned  in  your  city  come  from  ?  What  does  it  cost  a  ton  ? 

4.  Which  makes  more  heat,  wood  or  coal?  Which  costs 
more? 

5.  Describe  making  a  fire.     How  is  it  regulated  ? 

6.  Name  all  the  parts  of  a  common  stove.  (Recall  the 
work  of  Lesson  29,  Third  Grade.) 

7.  What  is  needed  for  a  fire  besides  fuel  ? 

8.  Mention  all  the  different  kinds  of  fuel  that  you  know; 
describe  each  kind  and  tell  for  what  it  is  used. 

9.  In  what  two  ways  may  we  fix  the  amount  of  heat  from 
a  stove  or  furnace  ?  If  the  fire  becomes  too  hot,  what  do  we  do  ? 
Why?  When  it  is  too  low,  what  do  we  do?   AA'hy? 

10.  How  do  Indians  and  other  savage  tribes  make  and  use 
fire  ?  What  fuels  do  they  use  ? 

11.  Which  have  greater  need  for  heat,  civilized  or  savage 
people  ? 

12.  Tell  many  things  that  we  do  with  artificial  heat. 


58  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

13.  Visit  a  blacksmith  shop,  a  foundry,  a  smelter,  or  other 
places  where  great  heat  is  used. 

14.  Describe  the  manner  of  heating  the  school  building. 


LESSON  XXXI 
HEAT— RELATION  TO  OXYGEN 

Experiment. — Pour  some  limewater  into  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  and 
shake  it.  Do  you  see  any  change  in  the  water  ?  Now  carefully  lower  a 
piece  of  lighted  candle  into  the  bottle  by  means  of  a  wire  wrapped  around 
it.  Cover  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  with  the  hand  until  the  light  goes  out. 
Remove  the  candle  and  shake  the  water  again  for  a  few  moments. 

1.  How  has  the  water  changed?  Why  did  it  not  turn  milky 
before  ? 

2.  Has  the  appearance  of  the  air  in  the  bottle  changed  ? 

Note.— This  test  shows  that  after  the  candle  went  out,  the  air  in  the 
bottle  contained  something  that  it  did  not  contain  before — a  gas  called 
carbon  dioxide.  This  gas  is  made  whenever  common  fuels  are  burned. 
We  cannot  see  it  nor  smell  it,  but  its  power  to  turn  limewater  milky  is  a 
good  means  to  find  out  when  it  is  present. 

3.  Why  did  the  candle  go  out? 

4.  Would  it  have  gone  out  if  it  had  been  supplied  with  a 
current  of  fresh  air? 

5.  What  becomes  of  the  carbon  dioxide  made  in  stoves, 

grates,  etc.  ?  What  would  be  the  effect  if  this  gas  were  not 

taken  out  of  our  rooms? 

Note. — Carbon  dioxide  is  made  of  one  part  of  carbon  obtained  from 
the  fuel  and  two  parts  of  oxygen  obtained  from  the  air.  The  union  of 
these  two  elements  produces  the  heat  caused  by  the  fire. 

6.  What  will  happen  to  a  fire,  then,  if  the  supply  of  either 
of  these  two  elements  is  cut  off  ? 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK        5g 

7.  Why  should  the  doors  and  windows  of  a  burning  building 
(except  those  used  by  the  firemen)  be  kept  closed  ? 

8.  Why  may  a  fire,  just  starting,  be  "  smothered  "  by  putting 
over  it  a  quilt,  blanket,  overcoat,  or  other  covering  that  may 
be  at  hand? 

9.  Explain  ''banking"  the  fire  in  a  furnace. 

10.  Will  too  much  fuel  ever  put  out  a  fire?  Will  too  much 
air  ever  put  out  a  flame  ?  Why  ? 

11.  What  condition  is  necessary  before  fuel  and  air  will 
unite  so  as  to  make  a  fire  and  produce  heat?  Explain  how  a 
fire  is  started. 

LESSON  XXXII 

HEAT-FRICTION 

Experiment. — Rub  a  brass  button  upon  the  sleeve  or  upon  the  floor. 
A  stick  rubbed  with  hard  pressure  in  a  close-fitting  groove  will  serve  the 
purpose  better. 

1.  What  causes  the  heat  produced  ? 

2.  Mention  examples  of  heat  being  made  by  rubbing  things 
together.  Did  you  ever  see  an  axle  of  a  wagon  get  hot  because 
someone  had  forgotten  to  oil  it? 

3.  Explain  the  striking  of  a  match;  the  "hot  box"  on  a 
train;  the  sparks  that  fly  from  the  brake  blocks  when  a  train 
is  being  stopped  quickly. 

4.  Is  the  heat  produced  by  friction  ever  used  by  man? 
Give  examples. 

5.  Is  it  ever  harmful  to  man  ?  Give  an  example. 

6.  How  is  friction  prevented  in  machinery?  Explain  the 
use  of  lubricating  oil. 


6o  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

7.  Compare  the  friction  of  ball  bearings  with  that  of  other 
kinds  of  bearings. 

8.  Why  do  we  rub  our  hands  together  briskly  when  they 
are  cold? 

9.  Explain  why  the  iron  break-blocks  on  heavy  freight- 
cars  often  get  red  hot  while  going  down  the  steep  slopes  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains. 

LESSON   XXXIII 

HEAT— PERCUSSION 

Experiment. — Hammer  vigorously  a  penny,  or  any  small,  thin  piece 
of  metal,  on  an  anvil  or  large  stone.  Note  the  heat  produced.  Black- 
smiths often  make  iron  very  hot  in  this  way. 

1.  Have  you  ever  made  sparks  by  striking  together  two 
large  stones? 

2.  Explain  the  old-fashioned  way  of  making  a  fire  with 
flint  and  steel.     Explain  the  firing  of  an  old  flintlock  gun. 

3.  How  is  a  modern  gun  fired?  How  is  the  heat  needed 
to  burn  the  powder  produced  ? 

4.  Give  other  examples  where  heat  is  produced  by  a  blow  or 
shock.  Does  man  often  use  this  method  in  making 
heat?     How  was  fire  made  before  we  had  matches? 

A  pound  weight,  falling  a  distance  of  772  feet,  will  make 
enough  heat  on  striking  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a  pound 
of  water  one  degree. 

5.  Niagara  Falls  are  160  feet  high.  Is  there  any  differ- 
ence in  the  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  top  and  the 
bottom  of  the  falls  ?  Why  ? 

6.  Does  "whipping"  cream  or  '  beating"  eggs  change 
their  temperature  ?  Why  ? 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  61 


LESSON   XXXIV 

HEAT— ELECTRICITY 

Experiment. — Turn  on  the  electric  light  and  feel  the  bulb  gradually 
get  warm.     What'  makes  the  heat  ? 

1.  Mention  other  examples  of  heat  coming  from  electricity. 
Describe  electrical  heaters,  stoves,  flatirons,  etc. 

2.  Are  the  wires  that  carry  the  electricity  always  hot  ? 
Electricity  is  turned  into  heat  when  it  is  forced  to  pass 

through  a  wire  or  other  medium  that  is  too  small  or  that 
resists  its  passage. 

3.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  small  wire  melted  when  a  large 
one  carrying  electricity  broke  and  fell  across  it  ? 

4.  Lightning  is  electricity.  Have  you  ever  heard  of  houses, 
barns,  oil  tanks,  etc.,  being  set  on  fire  by  lightning  ? 

5.  Tell  of  any  accidental  burnings  that  you  may  know  of 
that  were  caused  by  electricity. 

In  foundries  and  other  places  where  steel  and  iron  are  made 
or  used,  workmen  often  cut  or  weld  great  steel  bars  by  means 
of  heat  from  an  electric  current. 

6.  What  marks  of  heat  have  you  seen  on  trees  or  other 
objects  that  have  been  struck  by  lightning? 

7.  When  persons  are  killed  by  lightning,  does  it  ever  burn 
them  ? 

8.  Examine  the  ''fuse"  in  a  common  electric  light.  \\'hy 
is  it  made  of  lead? 

9.  If  lightning'  strikes  the  electric  wires,  how  does  the 
"fuse"  protect  our  home? 


62  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

LESSON  XXXV 

HEAT— CHEMICAL  ACTION 

Experiment  i. — Pour  some  cold  water  on  a  little  quicklime  and  watch 
the  action  that  takes  place  in  a  short  time. 

1.  What  change  takes  place  in  the  temperature  of  the  lime  ? 
in  the  form  or  condition  of  the  lime  ? 

Experiment  2. — Pour  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  into  a  little  cold 
water  in  a  test  tube,  and  feel  the  water  grow  warmer. 

2.  Can  you  tell  why  it  gets  warmer  ? 

Experiment  3. — Pour  a  few  drops  of  the  same  acid  into  a  mixture  of 
sugar  and  potassic  chlorate.     A  fire  is  produced  at  once. 

When  great  changes  take  place  rapidly  from  putting  to- 
gether two  or  more  substances,  heat  is  often  produced.  This 
change  is  called  chemical  action,  and  often  takes  place  so 
slowly  that  little  or  no  heat  is  made. 

3.  When  hay  is  put  into  the  stack  or  barn  before  it  gets  dry, 
why  does  it  "  heat "  and  turn  black  and  musty  ? 

4.  Account  for  the  steaming  of  a  damp  manure  pile  and  its 
heat,  which  often  melts  the  snow  as  fast  as  it  falls  upon 
it. 

Decay  is  a  chemical  action  and  when  rapid  often  creates 
heat. 

5.  Have  you  ever  heard  of  a  barn  or  store  burning  from 
this  cause? 

6.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  pile  of  damp  clothes  that  had 
become  warm  after  lying  for  a  long  time  without  being  moved  ? 
Give  examples  of  heat  caused  by  decay,  molding,  or  by 
other  chemical  action. 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  63 

LESSON   XXXVI 

HEAT— EXPANSION  OF  SOLIDS 

Experiment  i. — Take  a  small  round  bottle  and  twist  a  fine  wire  around 
it  so  tightly  that  the  loop  will  hold  up  the  bottle.  Now  remove  the  loop 
and  heat  it  red  hot  in  the  lamp  flame  and  it  will  allow  the  bottle  to  slide 
through  it  with  ease  while  the  wire  remains  hot. 

1.  Explain  the  action  of  heat  in  this  experiment.  Give 
other  examples  where  you  have  seen  heat  cause  solids  to 
expand. 

2.  How  are  wagon  tires  "  set"  by  blacksmiths  ? 

3.  Why  do  we  heat  the  neck  of  a  bottle  when  the  glass 
stopper  refuses  to  come  out  ? 

4.  Why  is  a  small  space  left  between  the  ends  of  rails  on  a 
railroad  track  ?  Think  of  other  examples  of  this  law. 

5.  The  author  once  saw  a  railroad  station  burned.  During 
the  fire  the  tracks  in  front  of  the  burning  building  rose  grad- 
ually many  feet  into  the  air.  What  do  you  think  caused  them 
to  do  this? 

6.  How  may  the  amount  of  expansion  of  a  solid  by  heat  be 
measured  ?  Study  carefully  the  piece  of  apparatus  shown  on 
the  next  page  and  make  one  like  it  in  the  manual  training  room. 

7.  How  will  the  expansion  of  the  wire  move  the  short 
end  of  the  index  finger  ?  How  will  it  move  the  long  end  ? 
How^  will  the  distance  one  moves  compare  with  that  of  the 
other  ? 

8.  Suppose  the  short  end  of  the  index  finger  is  half  an 
inch  and  the  other  five  inches  long,  how  will  their  res])ect- 
ive  movements  compare?  How  will  this  tell  us  the  amount 
the  wire  has  lengthened? 


64 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


/ 

__^^ 

^^^^^^^^m  ^ 

^^p 

I^T^^I^^H 

Measuring  Expansion  Due  to  Heat 

A  heavy,  horizontal  wire  is  fastened  at  one  end  to  an  upright  post,  and  passes  through  a 
loop  at  the  other  end,  where  it  presses  against  the  short  end  of  an  index  finger.  The  long 
end  of  the  finger  moves  over  a  graduated  arc.  The  wire  may  be  heated  by  moving  an  alco- 
hol lamp  to  and  fro  under  it. 


Experiment  2. — Fasten  firmly  to  a  strong  frame,  as  shown  in  the  cut, 
several  strips  of  different  metals  as  iron,  copper,  zinc,  etc.  Place  them 
on  a  hot  radiator  or  stove,  or  in  a  vessel  of  boiling  water,  in  such  a  way 
that  all  the  strips  will  receive  the  same  amount  of  heat. 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  65 

9.  Do  you  think  the  same  amount  of  heat  will  expand 
all  metals  equally? 

10.  What  change  does  the  heat  produce  in  the  strips? 
Explain  it. 

11.  Which  metal  expands  most? 

LESSON  XXXVII 

HEAT— EXPANSION  OF  LIQUIDS  AND  GASES 

Experiment  i. — Fill  a  Florence  flask  full  of  water  and  close  the  mouth 
with  a  cork  through  which  passes  a  long  glass  tube.  Heat  the  water  in 
the  flask  and  it  will  begin  to  rise  in  the  tube,  and  may  be  made  to  overflow. 

1.  What  effect  has  the  heat  upon  the  volume  of  water  in  the 
flask  ? 

2.  Recall  the  action  of  the  thermometer  and  its  causes. 

3.  Why  does  a  teakettle  boil  over  ? 

4.  Think  of  other  examples  where  heat  causes  liquids  to 
expand. 

Experiment  2. — Arrange  an  empty  flask  as  in  the  last  experiment, 
but  with  the  upper  end  of  the  glass  tube  bent  and  placed  under  water. 
Apply  heat  and  notice  the  bubbles  of  air  leaving  the  flask.  Remove  the 
hrat,  and,  as  the  flask  cools,  observe  that  the  water  will  be  sucked  back 
into  it. 

5.  Explain  the  eft'ect  of  heat  in  this  experiment.  Can  you 
think  of  any  use  that  is  made  of  this  principle  ? 

Experiment  3  (for  the  teacher).— Take  a  piece  of  small  glass  tubing 
about  two  inches  long  and  close  one  end  by  heating  it  in  the  alcohol 
lamp.  When  cold,  pour  a  few  drops  of  water  into  the  tube  and  seal  the 
other  end  in  the  same  way,  taking  care  to  hold  it  so  that  the  water  will 
remain  away  from  the  end  while  being  heated.     Suspend  the  tube  in 


66 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


the  flame  of  the  lamp  and  place  a  pane  of  glass  between  it  and  the  class. 
In  a  few  minutes  the  tube  will  burst  with  a  loud  report  and  small  pieces 
of  glass  will  be  thrown  in  all  directions. 

6.  Explain  the  action  of  the  heat  in  this  experiment. 

7.  What  use  is  made  of  this  great  expansive  force   of 
steam?  What  dangers  does  it  often  cause? 

8.  What  actions  in  nature  are  no  doubt  due  to  this  cause  ? 


LESSON  XXXVIII 

HEAT— CONDUCTION 

Experiment  i. — Take  three  wires  of  equal  size — one  of  iron,  one  of 
brass,  and  the  other  of  copper — and  twist  them  together  at  one  end  into 


a  common  stem.     Separate  the  other  ends  and  fasten  them  as  shown  in 
the  illustration. 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 


67 


On  each  wire,  at  equal  distances  from  the  stem,  place  small  balls  (jf 
wax.  Now  heat  the  stem  and  note  the  order  in  which  the  wax  bails 
melt. 


1.  Where  does  the  heat  come  from  that  melts  the 
balls  ? 

2.  Through  what  does  the  heat  travel  to  reach  the  balls? 
How  do  you  know  that  the  heat  does  not  travel  through  the 
air? 

3.  Which  ball  melted  first?  second?  third?  W^hat  effect 
had  the  distance  of  the  ball  from  the  heat  upon  its  time  of 
melting  ? 

4.  Why  did  not  all  the  balls  that  were  the  same  distance 
from  the  flame  melt  at  the  same  time? 

5.  Which  wire  carried  (conducted)  the  heat  fastest? 

6.  The  heat  traveled  slowest  in  which  wire  ? 

That  which  carries,  or  conducts,  heat  fast  is  called  a  good 
conductor  of  heat.     What  would  be  a  poor  conductor  ? 

7.  Which  of  the 
three  wires  is  the  best 
conductor  of  heat  ? 
Which  is  the  poorest 
conductor  ? 

8.  Are  all  solids 
conductors  of  heat? 

Experiment  2. — ^Pierce 
a  card  with  a  wire  nail  and 
a  splint  of  wood  of  the 
same  size  and  length. 
Lay  the  card  'over  a  cup 
of  boiling  water  so  that  the 

greater  length  of  the  nail  and  the  splint  will  be  in  the  water.   Place  a  wax 
ball  on  the  upper  end  of  each  and  note  which  ball  will  begin  to  melt  first. 


68  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

9.  How  do  wood  and  iron  compare  as  conductors  of  heat? 
Why  is  wood  called  a  non-conductor  of  heat  ? 

10.  Mention  good  conductors  of  heat.  Make  a  list  of 
them.  Name  as  many  uses  of  good  conductors  as  you 
can. 

11.  Mention  some  poor  conductors  of  heat.  Make  a  list 
of  them. 

12.  Why  are  handles  of  pokers,  oven  doors,  teakettles,  flat- 
irons,  etc.,  made  of  wood  or  of  coiled  wire  ? 

13.  Would  a  lumber  box  filled  with  hot  water  or  steam  serve 
to  heat  a  room  as  well  as  an  iron  radiator  ?  Why  ? 

14.  Why  are  steam  boilers  and  pipes  often  covered  with 
asbestos? 

Experiment  3. — Make  two  snowballs  of  equal  size.  Wrap  one  of  them 
in  cotton  cloth  and  the  other  in  woolen  cloth  of  the  same  thickness.  Put 
them  both  on  the  radiator,  or  in  some  warm  place  side  by  side,  and  see 
which  will  melt  first. 

15.  Which  is  the  better  conductor  of  heat,  wool  or  cotton  ? 
Why? 

16.  Which  is  used  more  in  winter  clothing?  for  summer 
wear  ? 

17.  Explain  how  our  winter  animals  are  kept  warm  by  the 
coats  nature  g* ves  them. 


LESSON  XXXIX 
HEAT— PHYSICAL  CHANGES 

Heat  is  a  wonderful  power  and  brings  about  many  strange 
results  when  used  upon  different  things.     Mention  as  many 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  69 

different  effects  of  heat  upon  different  things  as  you  can. 
Here  are  a  few: 

I — Heat  Softens 

1.  'What  things  are  softened  by  heat?  Which  get  soft  by 
gentle  heat  ?  Which  take  a  great  amount  of  heat  to  soften  ? 

2.  What  use  does  the  blacksmith  make  of  this  law  of 
heat? 

3.  What  things  in  our  homes  do  we  make  soft  with  heat? 
What  is  the  effect  of  heat  upon  most  of  our  foods  ? 

4.  Is  this  action  of  heat  ever  harmful  to  us?  Is  any  thing 
ever  damaged  by  it  ? 

II — Heat  Melts 

1.  Make  a  list  of  things  that  will  melt  when  heated. 

2.  Which  of  these  things  will  melt  if  left  in  the  sun  ? 

3.  Which  will  take  the  heat  of  a  furnace  to  melt  them  ? 

4.  Do  you  know  of  any  solids  that  cannot  be  melted  ?  Name 
some. 

5.  Name  many  ways  in  which  this  power  of  heat  is  used. 

6.  What  things  sometimes  melt  when  we  do  not  want  them 
to  melt? 

Ill — Heat  Vaporizes 

1.  What  becomes  of  water  spilt  on  a  hot  stove?    Does 
water  ever  disappear  with  gentler  heat? 

2.  What  other  things  are  turned  to  vapor  by  heat?  Make  a 
list  of  these. 

3.  What  is  the  most  important  use  made  by  man  of  this 
power  of  heat  ? 

Most  of  the  coal  burned  in  the  world  is  used  to  make  steam. 


70 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


4.  What  accidents  sometimes  happen  from  vapor  caused  by 

heat? 

5.  Does  heat  ever  turn  things  to  vapor  to  man's  injury? 

IV — Heat  Toughens 

1.  Mention  things  that  are  made  tougher  by  heat, 

2.  Compare  burned  and  unburned  bricks.  Which  are 
tougher  ? 

3.  How  is  glass  annealed,  or  made  so  it  will  not  break 

easily  ? 

4.  How  is  iron  made  into  steel  ? 

V — Heat  Hardens 

1.  Give  examples  of  the  hardening  effects  of  heat. 

2.  What  foods  get  hard  with  too  much  cooking  ? 

3.  Why  is  pottery  ware  burned  ? 

4.  Is  heat  used  in  tempering  steel  ? 

5.  How  is  the  hard  glazing  put  on  earthenware  ? 

6.  Mention  any  other  uses  of  heat  in  the  kitchen;  in  the 
laundry;  in  the  factory;  in  the  foundry;  in  the  garden;  in 
the  field,  the  forest. 

LESSON  XL 

EVAPORATION 

To  THE  Teacher. — Preparing  the  experiments  may  take  the  entire 
time  of  the  first  recitation  period.  Several  lessons  may  then  be  given  in 
considering  the  results  of  the  experiments,  making  inferences,  and  apply- 
ing the  principles  discovered. 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  71 

1.  Why  does  a  teakettle  boil  dry?  What  becomes  of  the 
water  ? 

2.  Explain  the  drying  of  muddy  roads;  of  sprinkled 
streets;  of  wet  clothing  on  the  line. 

Experiment  i. — Put  equal  quantities  of  water  into  two  similar  vessels; 
place  one  of  these  in  a  cool  place  and  the  other  upon  the  stove  or  radia- 
tor.     Allow  them  to  remain  there  several  hours. 

3.  Which  vessel  has  lost  the  more  water?  Why? 

4.  Give  several  examples  of  evaporation  caused  by 
heat. 

5.  How  do  we  use  heat  to  dry  things  in  our  homes  ? 

6.  How  are  clothes  dried  at  the  laundry  ? 

7.  Give  examples  of  heat  used  to  hasten  evaporation  in 
manufacturing  and  other  industries. 

8.  Compare  the  moisture  seen  in  nature  in  cold  and  in  hot 
weather.  When  are  the  roads  muddy?  When  are  they 
dusty?  When  do  weeds  and  grass  die  of  drought?  When 
does  the  dew  on  the  grass  disappear  ?  Why  ? 

9.  When  is  evaporation  a  good  thing?  When  does  it  do 
harm? 

Experiment  2. — Place  two  equal  vessels  of  water  where  they  will  have 
the  same  temperature,  covering  one  so  that  the  air  cannot  reach  it,  and 
exposing  the  other  to  air  currents. 

10.  In  which  vessel  is  evaporation  most  rapid?    Why? 

11.  Why  do  we  wave  a  wet  handkerchief  when  we  are  try- 
ing to  dry  it?  Do  clothes  on  the  line  dry  on  a  calm  day  as 
fast  as  they  do  in  the  wind? 

12.  What  effect  has  the  wind  upon  muddy  roads  ? 

13.  In  the  arid  regions,  why  do  the  farmers  dislike  a  wind 
just  after  irrigating  their  crops? 


y2  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

14.  What  is  the  effect  of  the  wind  upon  our  hands  and 
faces  if  we  are  out  in  it  long  ?     (See  Lesson  28,Third  Grade.) 

15  Give  other  examples  of  air  currents  causing  evapo- 
ration. 

Experiment  3. — Place  the  same  amount  of  water  in  each  of  two  vessels, 
one  being  shallow,  like  a  saucer,  exposing  a  large  surface  to  the  air,  and 
the  other  narrow  and  deep,  exposing  only  a  small  surface  to  the  air. 
Keep  both  at  the  same  temperature  and  note  from  which  the  evaporation 
will  be  the  more  rapid. 

16.  What  effect  has  the  amount  of  surface  exposed  to  the 
air  upon  the  rate  of  evaporation  ? 

1 7 .  Why  are  wet  clothes  hung  on  a  line  ? 

18.  Why  is  hay  allowed  to  lie  several  days  after  being  cut 
before  it  is  raked  and  piled  and  placed  in  a  stack  or  a  barn  ? 

19.  Why  are  haycocks  often  scattered  after  a  rain? 

20.  Why  are  bottles  containing  liquids  generally  corked  ? 

21.  What  three  conditions  hasten  evaporation? 

22.  Describe  many  examples  of  where  one  or  more  of  these 
three  conditions  are  used  to  cause  evaporation. 

23.  Describe  a  fruit  evaporator  and  explain  how  it  works. 

24.  What  things  do  we  keep  moist  by  preventing  evapora- 
tion? Give  examples. 

25.  When  plants  are  suffering  for  water,  what  is  gained  by 
the  leaves  curling  together  ? 

LESSON  XLI 
EVAPORATION— (Continued) 

I.  Do  other  liquids  than  water  evaporate?  Mention  some 
that  do. 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 


73 


2.  What  liquids  evaj^orate  rapidly  '^ 

3.  Which  evaporate  slowly  or  not  at  all  ? 

4.  Do  any  solids  evaporate,  or  decrease  in  size  and  weight, 
when  left  exposed  to  the  air  or  sunshine  ?  Give  examples. 

5.  Is  this  shrinkage  due  to  the  evaporation  of  water  con- 
tained in  the  solid,  or  does  the  solid  itself  disappear  ? 

6.  If  these  solids  are  put  in  a  damp  place,  will  they  regain 
any  of  their  lost  size  or  weight  ? 

Note. — Few  solids  evaporate.  Most  of  them  contain  water  which 
may  be  drawn  off  by  heat,  etc.,  leaving  them  smaller  and  lighter,  but  they 
never  dry  away  entirely  as  do  most  liciuids. 

7.  Does  ice  or  snow  ever  disappear  without  melting  first? 
Do  clothes  frozen  on  the  line  ever  dry  without  thawing 
first  ? 

Experiment. — Put  equal  quantities  of  water,  alcohol,  turpentine 
petroleum,  honey,  oils  of  various  kinds,  or  any  other  liquids  easily  ob- 
tained, into  vessels  where  conditions  for  influencing  evaporation  will  be 
equal,  and  find  out  their  difference  in  rate  of  evaporation.  A  drop  of 
each  liquid  placed  on  a  clean  pane  of  glass  to  evaporate  will  serve  the 
purpose  fairly  well. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  liquids  tested,  writing  first  the  ones 
that  evaporate  most  rapidly. 

9.  Which  would  dry  first,  a  coat  of  paint  or  varnish  mixed 
with  alcohol,  or  with  turpentine,  or  with  linseed  oil  ?  Why  ? 

10.  Why  do  painters  call  turpentine  or  alcohol  a  "dryer?" 

11.  Would  oils  that  evaporate  be  good  to  use  in  oiling 
machinery?  Why? 

12.  If  water  and  alcohol  are  mixed  and  gently  heated,  which 
will  pass  off  as  vapor  first  ?  Why  ? 

13.  In  roasting  rneats,  how  do  we  prevent  the  juices  from 
evaporating  ? 


74  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

14.  Why  is  perfume  kept  in  bottles  having  ground  glass 
stoppers  ? 

15.  What  liquids  are  valuable  because  they  evaporate 
quickly  ? 

16.  What  liquids  are  valuable  because  they  do  not  evaporate 
quickly  ? 

LESSON  XLII 

CONDENSATION 

Experiment  i. — Hold  a  slate  or  any  cold  surface  in  the  steam  of  a  tea 
kettle,  or  breathe,  upon  a  cold  window  pane. 

1.  What  do  you  observe  on  the  cold  surface  ? 

2.  Where  does  it  come  from? 

3.  What  change  takes  place  in  the  temperature  of  the 
vapor  as  it  touches  the  cold  surface  ? 

4.  Why  does  a  pitcher  of  ice  water  "sweat"  after  standing 
for  a  while  in  a  warm  room? 

5.  Observe  carefully  the  stream  of  vapor  as  it  issues  from 
the  teakettle,  and  note  that  it  cannot  be  seen  at  the  mouth 
but  becomes  visible  a  short  distance  from  it.     Why  is  this? 

Experiment  2. — Place  the  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp  in  the  visible  steam 
and  explain  why  the  steam  becomes  in\dsible  at  that  point. 

6.  What  change  takes  place  in  the  temperature  of  the  vapor 
as  it  mingles  with  the  air?  as  it  touches  a  cold  surface?  as 
the  flame  touches  it? 

7.  Account  for  the  moisture  often  seen  on  window  panes  in 
the  winter.     Why  is  it  not  seen  there  so  often  in  summer? 

8.  If   this   moisture  on   the  window    should    freeze,    as 


FOURTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 


75 


it  condenses  there,  what  would  be  formed  on  the  window? 

9.  On  which  side  of  the  window  is  the  frost  formed  ?  Why  ? 

10.  In  the  summer  time,  which  gets  cold  first  after  the  sun 
sets,  stones,  earth,  etc.,  or  grass  and  other  plants?  Explain 
how  dew  may  be  formed  and  on  what  things  it  is  formed. 

11.  If  dew  should  freeze  as  fast  as  it  gathers,  what  would 
be  formed? 

12.  Apply  the  thought  in  this  lesson  to  the  formation  of 
clouds;  of  rain;  of  fog;  of  mist. 

13.  Mention  many  examples  of  condensation  and  its  uses 
in  nature  and  to  man. 


LESSON  XLIII 
WORK  FOR  THE  FROST 

1.  When  water  freezes,   where  are  the  first  ice  crystals 
formed  ?  Examine  some  with  a  lens  and  describe  them. 

2.  Show  by  means  of  a  drawing  how  they  form  a  network 
on  the  surface  until  a  crust  of  ice  is  made. 

3.  Why  does  ice  form  on  the  surface  of  water  ? 

4.  What  makes  it  float  ?  About  what  part  of  a  piece  of  ice 
will  remain  above  the  surface  ?  Test  it. 

5.  What  would  be  some  of  the  results  if  ice  were  heavier 
than  water? 

6.  What  happens  to  a  pitcher  when  water  freezes  in  it? 

7.  What  causes  water  pipes  to  burst  sometimes  in  very  cold 
weather  ? 

8.  What  do  these  things  tell  us  about  the  space  a  given 
amount  of  water  occupies  before  and  after  freezing  ? 


7 6  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

9.  Is  this  an  explanation  of  why  ice  floats  on  water  ? 

10.  Why  are  water  mains  laid  about  four  feet  deep  in  the 
ground  ? 

1 1 .  How  deep  does  the  prairie  dog  dig  his  winter  home  ? 

Experiment. — Dig  holes  in  the  frozen  ground  in  several  places  and  find 
out  how  deep  the  frost  penetrates  in  the  different  kinds  of  soil  and  report 
in  the  class. 

12.  In  what  kinds  of  soil  does  the  frost  go  deepest  ? 

13.  When  the  frost  comes  out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring,  in 
what  condition  does  it  leave  the  soil  ? 

14.  Why  is  frost  sometimes  called  "nature's  plowman?" 

15.  When  does  the  farmer  do  most  of  his  plowing?  Is  the 
ground  as  easily  plowed  at  other  seasons  as  in  the  spring? 

16.  Compare  the  work  of  digging  in  the  garden  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year.     When  is  it  easiest  ?     Why  ? 

17.  What  plants  are  liable  to  be  hurt  by  late  frosts  in  the 
spring  ?  How  may  they  be  protected  ? 

18.  Why  are  tomato  and  cabbage  plants  often  started  in  a 
greenhouse  and  afterward  transplanted  to  the  garden,  es- 
pecially in  the  northern  states  ? 

19.  What  fruit  crops  are  sometimes  killed  by  untimely 
frosts  ? 

20.  Discuss  the  good  and  bad  effects  of  frost  upon 
various  things,  and  methods  used  to  keep  it  from  doing 
damage. 


FOURTH  GRADE -SPRING  WORK  7  7 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORT' 


V 


The  year's  at  the  spring 
And  day's  at  the  morn; 
Morning's  at  seven; 
The  hillside's  dew-pearled; 
The  lark's  on  the  wing; 
The  snail's  on  the  thorn; 
God's  in  his  heaven — 
All's  right  with  the  world! 

— Robert  BROvraiNG. 


LESSON  XLIV 
THE  WEATHERING  OF  ROCKS 

1.  If  the  frost  softens  and  loosens  the  soil,  does  it  have  any 
effect  upon  the  rocks? 

2.  Have  you  ever  seen  stone  doorsteps,  window  sills,  or 
copings  that  seemed  to  be  scaling  or  softening  on  the 
outside?  Where?  Account  for  the  change  noted. 

3.  Strike  with  a  hammer  any  stone  that  has  been  exposed 
many  years  to  the  weather.     Does  the  outer  layer  seem  to  be 
as  hard  as  the  inner  part? 

4.  When  on  a  field  trip,  notice  whether  large  rocks  show 
any  effects  of  the  action  of  weather  upon  them,  and  report 
observations. 

Experiment.— Weigh  carefully  a  piece  of  dry  sandstone.  Soak  it  in 
water  over  night  and  account  for  any  change  in  its  weight.  Examnie 
the  wet  stone  with  a  lens. 

5.  What  effect  upon  the  grains  of  sand  in  it,  would  you 
expect  if  this  stone  were  frozen  ? 


78  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

6.  If  water,  in  freezing,  expands  so  as  to  burst  a  water 
pitcher  or  an  iron  pipe,  how  will  it  act  among  the  grains  of 
sand  forming  the  sandstone? 

7.  How  in  nature  may  stones  become  wet  in  the  daytime 
and  freeze  at  night? 

8.  What  effect  will  this  weathering  of  rocks  have  upon  the 
shape  of  cliffs  and  mountain  peaks,  as  it  keeps  on  for  ages? 

9.  Why  have  the  stone  pyramids  kept  their  shape  for  so 
many  centuries  in  the  deserts  of  Egypt  ? 

10.  What  becomes  of  the  sand  and  dirt  thus  torn  loose  by 
the  action  of  weather? 

11.  When  are  our  streams  muddiest  ?  Why  ? 

12.  When  the  snows  on  the  mountain  sides  melt  during  the 
day  and  fill  with  water  the  crevices  in  the  rocks,  what  will 
happen  when  this  water  freezes  at  night  ? 

13.  Where  do  the  sharp  cornered  bits  of  stone  come  from 
that  are  found  near  the  base  of  most  mountain  cliffs?  How 
do  they  get  there? 

LESSON  XLV 

EROSION  OF  ROCKS 

Experiment. — Neariy  fill  a  strong  bottle  with  pebbles  that  have  been 
washed  perfectly  clean.  Add  clear  water  to  cover  them.  Cork  tightly 
and  shake  vigorously  before  the  class  for  one  minute  by  the  watch. 
The  water  will  then  be  quite  muddy,  unless  the  pebbles  are  very  hard. 

1.  What  made  the  water  muddy  or  turbid?  Where  did  the 
dirt  in  it  come  from  ? 

2.  How  may  we  find  out  just  how  much  dirt  was  worn  ofif 
in  one  minute  by  the  pebbles  rubbing  against  each  other? 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  79 

Complete  the  experiment  by  passing  the  water  through  a  filter  paf  t. 
that  has  been  carefully  weighed.  Then  dry  it  and  weigh  it  again  lo 
find  how  much  dirt  it  has  caught. 

3.  What  would  be  the  condition  of  the  water  if  the  shaking 
were  continued  an  hour?  a  day?  What  effect  would  it  have 
upon  the  pebbles? 

4.  Are  rocks  ever  ground  in  nature  in  a  similar  way  ? 

5.  What  proof  of  such  wearing,  or  erosion,  have  we  in  the 
shape  of  most  pebbles  ? 

Note. — Some  of  the  toy  marbles  used  by  the  boys  in  their  play  each 
spring  are  made  from  stones  in  a  marble  mill.  The  stones  are  first 
broken  into  small  cubes  and  a  quantity  of  them  placed  in  a  steel  cylinder, 
which  is  made  to  revolve  on  its  axis  day  and  night  while  a  small  stream 
of  water  passes  in  and  out  again.  In  this  manner  the  edges  and  corners 
are  gradually  worn  away  and  the  cubes  become  spheres.  When  polished, 
they  are  ready  for  market. 

A  miniature  mill  of  this  kind  may  be  made  by  using  a  large  glass  bottle 
to  contain  the  pebbles  and  attaching  it  to  a  small  water  wheel  in  such  a 
way  that  it  will  revolve  by  the  force  of  the  water  from  the  faucet  at  the 
sink. 


LESSON  XLVI 

CONSTITUENTS  OF  SOIL 

1.  Examine,   with  a  lens,   samples  of  different   kinds  of 

soil. 

2.  Do  all  the  particles  seem  to  be  of  the  same  kind  of 
material?  Describe  them  as  to  shape,  size,  color,  kinds,  etc. 

3.  Which  do  you  think  are  good  soils?  Which  are  poor? 
Give  reasons  for  your  judgment. 

4.  Can  you  think  of  a  way  of  separating  the  dift'erent  kinds 
of  materials,  or  the  constituents,  that  make  up  the  soils? 


8o 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


5.  How  can  we  get  rid  of  the  sticks,  leaves,  etc. — the 
vegetable  matter? 

Experiment  i — Weigh  four  ounces  or  100  grams  of  good  soil  that  has 
been  thoroughly  dried.  If  possible,  heat  it  red  hot  in  some  suitable 
vessel.  Cool  it  and  weigh  again.  The  loss  in  weight  will  be  the  vegetable 
matter  burned  in  heating  it. 

6.  Are  all  the  remaining  particles  of  the  same  size  ? 

7.  How  may  these  be  separated  ? 


Fourth  Grade  Pupils  Analyzing  Soil — Utah  State  Normal 

Training  School 


Experiment  2. — Pass  the  sample  through  a  sieve  made  of  ordinary 
screen  wire.  (See  Book  I,  page  161.)  This  will  take  out  the  gravel. 
Weigh  it  carefully.  Pass  the  remainder  through  a  sieve  made  of  fine 
brass  wire  cloth.     This  will  separate  the  coarse  sand.     Weigh  this  also. 

Put  the  fine  dust  remaining  into  a  beaker,  and  wash  it  very  carefully 
until  the  water  becomes  clear.     In  changing  the  water,  let  the  fine  sand 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK        8 1 

settle  each  time  before  pouring  off  tl.  j  turbid  water  which  takes  away 
the  clay.  Drain  off  the  water  when  it  becomes  clear,  and  dry  and  weigli 
the  fine  sand  left  in  the  bottom  of  the  beaker. 

8.  How  may  the  weight  of  the  clay  be  found  ? 

9.  Compare  the  amount  of  clay  and  sand;  of  gravel  and 
fine  sand.     Write  the  results  of  this  experiment. 

10.  Which  of  the  samples  of  soil  has  most  sand  ?  Which  has 
most  clay? 

11.  Where  does  the  soil  get  its  gravel?  its  sand?  its  clay? 

12.  How  do  leaves  and  sticks  get  mixed  with  it  ? 


LESSON  XLVII 

NATURE  OF  SOIL  MATERIALS 

Exprriment  i. — Take  three  chalk  boxes  and  fill  one  with  sand,  one 
with  clay,  and  one  with  good  garden  loam,  all  having  the  same  temperature. 
Place  them  side  by  side  in  the  sunshine,  and  test  the  temperature  of  each 
at  intervals. 

1 .  Which  absorbs  heat  most  rapidly  from  the  sun  ? 

2.  Which  absorbs  least  ? 

3.  Do  plants  grow  best  in  warm  or  cold  soils  ? 

4.  The  sand  in  the  soil  has  what  influence  upon  its  heat? 

5.  Does  the  sand  add  to  the  heat  of  the  desert  ? 

6.  For  early  gardening  would  you  prefer  a  sandy  or 
a  clayey  soil?  Why? 

7.  Which  are  called  "  warm  "  soils  ?  Why  ? 

Experiment  2. — Take  several  lamp  chimneys  and  tie  a  piece  of  muslin 
over  their  ends  to  retain  their  contents.  Fill  one  with  sand,  one  with 
clay,  and  one  with  loam.  Various  samj.lcs  of  soil  may  be  tested  at 
the  same  time.  Stand  them  upright  in  a  pan  containing  half  an  inch  of 
water.     (See  Illustration,  page  82.) 


82 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


Experiment  2 


8.  Which  absorbs  water 
most    rapidly?   most    slowly? 

9.  Where  will  rain  penetrate 
deeper,  in  sandy  or  clayey  soil  ? 

Which  will  cause    the 
rain  to  run  off  ? 

10.  Why  are  sand 
and  gravel  used  on 
walks  and  roads  to 
prevent  mud? 

11.  What  two  things,  needed  by  plants,  does  sand  absorb 
into  the  soil? 

Experiment  3. — Place  like  amounts  of  wet  sand  and  wet  clay  in  the  sun, 
or  upon  a  warm  stove,  and  see  which  will  dry  first. 

12.  The  power  of  clay  to  retain  moisture  is  of  what  value 
to  soil? 

13.  Why  does  good  soil  need  to  have  nearly  equal  amounts 
of  sand  and  clay  ?  What  good  does  each  do  ? 

14.  What  is  the  result  if  the  soil  has  too  much  sand?  too 
much  clay? 

15.  Can  you  tell  good  soils  by  their  looks  ? 

LESSON  XL VIII 
THE  SCHOOL  GARDEN 


To  THE  Teacher. — Since  most  schools  close  by  the  first  of  June 
for  a  long  vacation,  a  school  garden  can  never  accomplish  for  the  pupils 
more  than  a  fraction  of  the  good  that  would  otherwise  come  from  it. 
Generally  there  is  a  disappointment  to  both  teacher  and  pupils  on  leaving 
it  that  is  relieved  only  by  the  joy  of  a  vacation. 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRTX(;  WORK  83 

In  the  development  of  the  race,  agriculture  played  a  \ery  imj)ortanl 
part  psychically  as  well  as  physically,  and  the  child  now  shoukl  n(jt 
be  so  wholly  deprived  of  its  benefits  as  he  seems  to  be  under  modern 
conditions.  Some  work,  therefore,  should  be  done,  and  with  a  natural 
motive,  by  each  pupil;  and  fortunate  is  the  one  who  can  complete  the 
season's  work  in  a  home  garden  and  gather  the  ripened  psychic  harvest 
with  the  other. 

A  few  early  flowering  plants  and  some  early  garden  vegetables,  such  as 
radishes,  lettuce,  young  onions,  etc.,  may  mature  sufhciently  before  vaca- 
tion for  the  products  to  be  gathered  and  used;  and  if  the  janitor,  or  some 
other  person,  can  be  secured  to  care  for  the  garden  during  the  summer, 
crops  of  late  vegetables  and  fruits  may  be  enjoyed  by  the  children  after 
school  begins  in  the  fall. 

In  the  hope  that  some  of  the  principles  of  agriculture  may  be  discovered 
and  applied,  the  following  simple  problems  are  suggested  for  the  pupils 
to  work  out  in  the  school  garden.  Many  recitation  periods  should  be 
spent  in  the  garden. 

When  spring  changes  begin,  the  Natural  History  Calendar  should  1)6 
resumed  in  order  to  stimulate  observation  and  to  secure  data  and  speci- 
mens that  may  be  needed. 

Weeds 

1.  How  do  weeds  get  into  the  garden  ?  Recall  the  work  done 
on  the  scattering  of  seeds.     (See  Book  I,  pp  141-145.) 

2.  To  what  extent  are  weed  seeds  found  in  the  soil  in  early 
spring?  Test  samples  of  soil  and  find  out  if  they  contain 
weed  seeds.     How  may  this  be  done  ? 

3.  How  can  weeds  in  the  garden  be  prevented  next  year? 
What  work  must  be  done,  and  what  precautions  taken  to 
keep  the  weeds  out  of  the  garden  ? 

4.  In  hoeing  weeds,  why  must  they  be  cut  off  as  low  as 
possible  in  the  ground?  Why  will  not  mowing  or  cutting  olT 
the  top  kill  them? 

5.  In  what  ways  are  weeds  harmful  in  the  garden?  Allow 
some  to  grow  among  the  useful  plants  and  see. 


84  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

6.  Are  weeds  of  any  use  in  nature  ? 

7.  Write  a  list  of  all  the  common  weeds  you  know,  and  tell 
how  their  seeds  are  scattered. 

8.  How  may  each  kind  best  be  destroyed  or  prevented? 

LESSON  XLIX 
THE  SCHOOL  GARDEN— (Continued) 

I. — Planting 

1.  Plant  the  same  kind  of  seeds  at  various  times,  care  well 
for  them  all  and  see  which  produce  the  best  crops.  Keep 
a  careful  record  of  the  dates,  conditions,  and  results  during 
all  experiments. 

2.  Plant  similar  seeds  at  different  depths  and  note  results. 

3.  Plant  seeds  at  various  distances  and  determine  the 
amount  of  room  that  different  plants  require. 

4.  Of  what  value  to  the  farmer  is  it  to  know  the  best  time 
in  which  to  plant  his  different  crops?  What  may  happen  if 
he  plants  too  early?  too  late?  Give  examples  of  injury  to 
crops  through  not  having  been  planted  at  the  proper  time. 

5.  If  seeds  are  planted  too  deep,  what  may  be  the  result? 
If  not  planted  deep  enough,  what  harm  may  it  cause? 

6.  Why  should  a  farmer  know  just  how  much  seed  to 
plant  to  an  acre  ?  If  seed  is  planted  too  thick,  what  harm  is 
done  ?  What  is  lost  if  not  enough  seed  is  planted  ? 

7.  Why  do  fields  of  sugar  beets  always  have  to  be  "  thinned  " 
early  in  the  spring,  leaving  the  young  beets  a  uniform  dis- 
tance apart? 

8.  Plant  two  kinds  of  seeds  together,  as  corn  and  squash, 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  85 

and  find  out  if  this  is  true  economy.     Docs  cither  interfere 
with  the  other  and  make  a  poor  crop? 

II. — Irrigation 

• 

1 .  What  crops  require  much  moisture  ? 

2.  What  crops  grow  well  with  little  water  ? 

3.  Supply  different  rows  of  plants  in  the  garden  with 
different  amounts  of  water,  and  find  out  which  are  benefited 
by  getting  more  water  than  falls  as  rain. 

4.  Does  it  always  rain  when  crops  need  moisture  ? 

5.  If  plants  suffer  long  for  moisture,  will  they  ever  revive 
and  become  as  vigorous  and  strong  as  though  they  had 
received  all  the  time  the  water  that  they  needed? 

6.  Tell  what  you  know  of  the  efTects  of  a  drought. 

III. — Rotation  of  Crops 

« 

1.  Does  the  same  crop  thrive  as  well  when  grown  year 
after  year  on  the  same  land? 

2.  Can  you  think  of  any  reason  why  it  should  not  ? 

3.  If  you  can,  ask  some  skilled  farmer  what  would  be 
the  result  of  planting  the  same  crop  for  several  years  in 
succession  on  a  given  field. 

4.  Do  the  same  wild  plants  grow  and  thrive  year  after 
year  in  the  same  place?  Which  do?  Which  do  not?  Give 
a  reason  for  what  you  have  observed  about  wild  plants  in 

this  regard. 

5.  Do  farmers  near  your  school  change  their  crops  each 

year? 

6.  What  do  the  farmers  do  to  make  the  soil   rich   and 

fertile  ?  Why  is  this  needful  ? 


86  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

IV — Effects  of  Various  Conditions 

1.  How  do  plants  behave  when  it  is  very  hot?  Do  any  die 
because  of  the  heat  in  summer? 

2.  How  does  very  cold  weather  serve  them?  Describe  the 
effects  of  a  frost  upon  the  plants  in  the  garden.  How  does 
a  cold,  damp,  backward  season  affect  the  garden  ?  Do  seeds 
ever  rot  in  the  ground  because  of  cold  weather?  Examine 
seeds  planted  early  and  see  if  any  decay  without  sprout- 
ing. 

3.  Find  out  by  experimenting  in  the  garden  what  harm 
too  much  shade  does  to  plants.  Compare  similar  plants 
grown  in  sunshine  and  in  shadow. 

4.  In  one  place  in  the  garden,  prepare  carefully  the  soil 
for  planting;  and  in  another  place,  plant  the  same  seeds  with- 
out loosening  the  soil.     Discover  the  difference  in  results. 

5.  Keep   some   plants   carefully   hoed   or   cultivated   and. 
compare  with  others  of  the  same  kind  that  are  neglected. 

6.  Uncommon  seeds,  or  those  grown  in  other  lands,  may  be 
planted  and  studied. 

V— Trees 

1.  If  the  garden  is  large  enough  to  contain  trees,  tell 
which  are  pruned  so  as  to  have  good  shape. 

2.  Describe  how  small  trees  are  transplanted.  What  care 
should  be  taken  of  the  roots  in  digging  up  a  tree  ?  In  setting 
it  out  ?  Why  ? 

3.  Describe  how  fruits  are  gathered,  packed,  and  shipped. 

4.  Name  the  different  fruits  seen  at  the  market  and  tell 
where  each  kind  comes  from. 

5.  What  kinds  have  you  seen  growing  ? 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  87 

6.  What  insects  do  harm  to  trees?  What  are  their  natural 
enemies  ? 

7.  Why  are  fruit  trees  sometimes  sprayed?  Describe  how 
this  is  done.     Tell  why  it  is  done. 


LESSON   L 

GOD'S  MIRACLE  OF  MAY 

There  came  a  message  to  the  vine, 

A  whisper  to  the  tree; 
'  The  bluebird  saw  the  secret  sign 

And  merrily  sang  he! 
And  like  a  silver  string  the  brook 

Trembled  with  music  sweet — 
Enchanting  notes  in  every  nook 

For  echo  to  repeat. 

A  magic  touch  transformed  the  fields, 

Greener  each  hour  they  grew, 
Until  they  shone  like  burnished  shields 

All  jeweled  o'er  with  dew. 
Scattered  upon  the  forest  floor, 

A  million  bits  of  bloom 
Breathed  fragrance  forth  thro'  morning's  door 

Into  the  day's  bright  room. 

Then  inch  by  inch  the  vine  confessed 

The  secret  it  had  heard. 
And  in  the  leaves  the  azure  breast 

Sang  the  delightful  word; 
Glad  flowers  upsprang  among  the  grass 

And  flung  their  banners  gay, 
And  suddenly  it  came  to  pass — 

God's  Miracle  of  May! 

— Fr.\nk  Dempster  Sherman.* 

*By  courtesy  of  the  author's  publishers,  Messrs.  Houghton  Mitllin 
Company. 


88  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

STUDY  OF  BUDS 

1.  Recall  work  done  on  buds  in  Lesson  i8. 

2.  Collect  twigs  of  many  kinds  and  place  them  in  a  bottle 
of  water  in  a  sunny  window  of  the  schoolroom;  watch  the 
development  of  the  buds. 

3.  Name  and  describe  the  different  varieties  of  buds. 

4.  Learn  to  recognize  each  variety  at  sight. 

5.  Note  the  winter  protection  of  each  kind. 

6.  Which  buds  contain  leaves?  Which  contain  flowers? 
How  can  you  tell  a  leaf  bud  from  a  flower  bud  ?  How  may 
this  knowledge  prove  to  be  of  great  value. 

7.  Are  the  leaves  of  all  buds  folded  within  the  buds  in  the 
same  way? 

8.  Which  generally  burst  first,  th*e  leaf  buds  or  the  fruit 
buds?  Have  you  ever  seen  an  orchard  in  bloom?  Are  many 
leaves  to  be  seen  at  that  time  ? 

9.  Why  should  fruit  buds  open  first  ? 

10.  Do  all  the  buds  formed  in  the  fall  grow  in  the  spring? 
(See  Experiment,  Lesson  18.) 

1 1 .  What  advantage  do  the  buds  that  grow  have  over  those 
that  do  not  grow,  or  that  lie  dormant}  Consider  position, 
sunshine,  size  of  buds,  etc. 

12.  Can  the  dormant  buds  be  made  to  grow? 

Experiment. — From  a  thrifty  twig  having  dormant  buds,  cut  off  all  the 
active  buds  when  they  are  nearly  grown.  Watch  the  effect  upon  the 
dormant  buds. 

13.  Of  what  use  to  the  tree  are  the  dormant  buds?  When 
may  they  be  made  to  grow? 

Note. — One  spring  the  tender  young  leaves  of  a  large  mulberry  tree 
near  the  door  of  a  certain  schoolhouse  were  all  killed  by  a  severe  frost. 
The  teacher  and  pupils  feared  that  this  would  kill  the  tree.     In  a  few 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  89 

days,  however,  all  were  delighted  to  see  a  new  covering  of  leaves  on  the 
tree  as  heavy  as  the  first  had  been. 

14.  Where  did  the  second  growth  come  from  ? 

15.  Many  years  ago  most  of  the  orchards  in  the  arid  west 
were  stripped  of  all  their  foliage  by  the  common  grasshojjper, 
or  locust,  leaving  the  branches  and  young  fruit  entirely 
bare.  What  do  you  think  happened  to  the  orchard  a  few 
weeks  later  ? 

16.  Dormant  buds  are  like  a  reserve  army,  called  into 
action  only  when  needed  to  meet  a  danger.  Explain  the 
wisdom  of  this  provision. 

LESSON   LI 
RELATION  OF  BIRDS  TO  TREES 

1.  What  birds  have  you  seen  in  trees?  Make  a  list  of 
them.     Consult  your  Natural  History  Calendar. 

2.  What  birds  rarely  or  never  perch  upon  limbs  of  trees  ? 

3.  Are  the  feet  of  all  birds  adapted  for  perching  u]:)on 
trees?  Describe  the  feet  of  different  birds  that  you  have 
seen. 

4.  Compare  the  feet  of  the  robin,  the  woodpecker,  and  the 
duck,  and  tell  how  each  one's  feet  are  made  to  fit  best  its 
needs. 

5.  What  foods  do  these  birds  eat?  Arc  these  foods  found 
in  trees? 

6.  Compare  the  beaks  of  these  different  birds  and  tell  how 
each  is  adapted  to  the  needs  of  its  owner. 

7.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  feet  and  beaks  and  foods 
of  any  of  the  birds  found  near  the  school. 


90 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


Doing  a  Double  Service 


8.  Where  do  birds 
build  their  nests? 
What  birds  build  them 
in  trees  ?  Describe  any 
nests  that  you  have 
seen  built. 

9.  Have  you  ever 
seen  old  birds  feed 
their  young  ?  What  do 
they  bring  to  the  nest 
to  feed  the  young  ? 

10.  How  does  this 
habit  of  the  birds  bene- 
fit man?  Does  it  ever 

=•    injure  man? 

A  young  bird   will 


sometimes  eat  its  own  weight  of  food  in  a  day. 

Experiment. — If  the  nest  of  a  robin  or  of  any  of  our  songsters  can  be 
found  near  the  school,  watch  it  all  day  after  the  young  are  hatched  and 
count  how  many  times  the  old  birds  bring  food  to  the  nest.  (Each  mem- 
ber of  the  class  may  take  a  turn  at  the  work,  beginning  at  daylight  and 
ending  at  dark.)  Keep  a  careful  record  of  the  time  of  each  visit,  what 
the  old  one  brought,  if  you  can  tell,  and  any  happenings  of  interest. 
The  old  birds  must  not  know  that  they  are  watched  and  you  may  need 
to  hide  at  a  distance  and  use  opera  glasses  to  see  what  takes  place. 

11.  Mention  bugs  and  worms  that  injure  trees  and  their 
fruit.  Make  a  list  of  them.  Bring  examples  to  the 
school. 

12.  Tell  what  damage  you  have  seen  done  by  each.  Bring 
samples  of  bark,  leaves,  fruit,  etc.,  injured  by  insects. 

13.  Name  any  insect-eating  birds  that  you  know,  and  tell 
how  and  where  they  catch  their  food. 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  91 

Note. — The  apple  crop  in  the  west  has  been  a  partial  failure  for  many 
years  because  of  the  codling  moth;  and  each  year  millions  of  dollars 
worth  of  crops  are  destroyed  by  insects  in  the  United  States  which  the 
birds  would  prevent,  if  there  were  enough  of  them.  Besides  insects,  a 
great  quantity  of  weed  seeds  also  are  destroyed  by  the  birds.  A  single 
song  sparrow  has  been  known  to  eat  enough  dandelion  seed  in  a  day 
to  seed  a  good  sized  lawn  and  ruin  it. 

14.  What  arc  the  chief  enemies  of  these  birds  ? 

15.  How  may  we  aid  to  increase  their  numbers  ? 


LESSON  LII 
AN  ORCHARD 

1.  What  fruit  trees  have  you  seen  growing  ? 

2.  Make  a  hst  of  all  the  fruits  that  grow  near  your  home. 

3.  If  possible,  visit  an  orchard  and  talk  with  the  owner 
about  the  care  of  the  trees  and  the  crops. 

4.  What  trees,  and  how  many  of  each  kind,  would  you 
select  to  plant  an  orchard  of  100  trees  to  meet  best  the  needs 
of  a  family  ?  What  trees  ripen  their  fruits  early  ?  late  ?  What 
fruits  keep  during  the  winter? 

5.  Tell  how  much  fruit  each  kind  of  tree  named  will  bear 
in  a  year  when  the  trees  are  full  grown. 

6.  Why  are  trees  in  an  orchard  f)lanted  in  rows?  How  far 
apart  should  rows  of  various  trees  be  planted?  How  far 
apart  should  various  trees  be  planted  in  the  row  ?  Why  ? 

7.  Tell  how  trees  are  transplanted.  On  Arbor  Day,  or  at 
some  other  suitable  time,  transplant  some  trees  and  see  if  they 
will  grow. 

8.  Visit  a  nursery  and  see  how  the  young  trees  are  planted, 
budded,  cared  for,  and  removed  and  sold. 


92 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


9.  Describe  transplanting  trees  and  the  setting  out  of  an 
orchard.  What  is  the  proper  depth  to  set  out  a  young  tree  ? 
How  should  the  roots  be  arranged  before  covering  them? 
What  should  be  the  condition  of  the  soil  into  which  the  young 


'■5*. 


t-   ^    ■^r^ 


Tf-^^BgS^SWiMU  i 


A  Cherry  Orchard  in  bloom 


tree  is  placed?  Why  are  many  of  the  branches  trimmed 
off? 

10.  Should  a  fruit  tree  be  tall,  or  low  and  spreading  ?  Why  ? 
Should  it  have  a  long  or  a  short  trunk?  Should  it  be  one- 
sided? 

11.  How  may  trees  be  made  to  grow  into  desired 
shapes  ? 

12.  Does  the  best  fruit  grow  in  the  shade  or  in  the  sun- 
shine ?  On  which  limbs  do  we  find  the  best  fruit,  on  those  at 
the  top  of  the  tree  or  on  the  low  shaded  ones  ? 

13.  Should  fruit  trees  have  a  dense  foliage?  How  can  this 
be  regulated? 


FOURTH  GRADE -SPRING  WORK 


9S 


14.  Is  it  good  economy  to  cut  off  large  limbs  when  pruning 
an  orchard?  Why?  How  may  the  need  to  do  so  be 
avoided  ? 

15.  How  are  different  fruits  gathered  ? 

16.  Tell  how  each  of  these  fruits  is  packed  and  shipjjed: 
apples,  peaches,  apricots,  cherries,  oranges,  bananas,  straw- 
berries, raspberries,  etc.     Give  reasons  for  each  method. 

17.  What  care  should  the  ground  among  the  trees  receive? 
What  neglect  in  this  regard  is  common?  What  are  the 
effects  ? 

18.  What  useful  crops  may  be  grown  among  the  trees 
when  young?  Are  these  secondary  crops  profitable  in  old 
orchards  ? 

LESSON   LHI 
ORCHARD  PESTS 

1.  Describe  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  eggs,  larvcT, 
cocoons,  etc.,  collected  or  seen  since  early  spring. 

2.  How  were  these  specimens  protected  during  the  winter? 

3.  What  causes  them  to  hatch  or  change  at  this  time? 

4.  Most  insects  pass  through  how  many  changes  in  de\elop 
inc  ^ 

5.  In  which  state  do  they  eat  most  ?  least  ? 

6.  Mention  all  the  ways  in  which  you  have  seen  insects 
injure  an  orchard.  Which  eat  the  leaf?  Which  bore  under 
the  bark?  Which  hurt  the  root?  Which  suck  the  sap,  or 
moisture,  from  the  leaves  and  cause  them  to  wither  and 
drop  off? 

7.  What  are  the  natural  enemies  of  these  pcsls  ? 


94 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


8.  What  means  do  men  use  to  get  rid  of  them  ? 

9.  Tell  how  orchards  are  sprayed  to  get  rid  of  the  pests. 

10.  What  insects  are  killed   by   using   a    poison    in    the 

spray  ? 

11.  What  poison  is  commonly  used?  Why  will  not  this 
kill  all  insects?  Would  one  that  sucks  the  sap,  as  a  mos- 
quito sucks  blood,  swallow  poison  sprayed  on  the  surface 
of  the  leaf? 

12.  Tell  what  you  know  of  the  great  benefit  of  spraying  to 
various  crops. 

LESSON   LIV 
EFFECTS  OF  CULTIVATION 

1.  If  a  flower  bed  or  garden  is  neglected,  what  changes 
begin  to  take  place  at  once  ?  What  is  the  effect  if  the  neglect 
continues  long. 

2.  Compare   a   well-kept   garden   with   a   neglected  one. 

Experiment. — Neglect  one  portion  of  the  school  garden  and  notice  the 
results. 

3.  How  will  the  seeds  or  fruits  of  a  well-kept  garden 
compare  with  those  of  one  that  is  neglected  ? 

4.  If  the  poor  seeds  of  a  neglected  garden  be  planted,  will 
they  produce  as  good  crops  as  good  seeds  will  ? 

5.  If  a  farmer  fails  year  after  year  to  cultivate  his  crops 
properly  and  plants  the  poor  seeds  he  raises,  what  will  be  the 
effects  on  his  crops  in  a  few  years  ? 

6.  How  can  a  farmer  improve  continually  his  crops?  Is  it 
wise  to  choose  the  biggest  and  best  seeds  to  plant  ?  Why  ? 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  95 

7.  What  care  should  be  given  the  lawn?  Do  you  know  of 
lawns  that  are  not  properly  cared  for  ? 

8.  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  care  needed  by  a  flower  bed; 
a  vegetable  garden;  an  orchard. 

Note. — Through  proper  cultivation  our  choicest  apples  have  come 
from  the  wild,  sour,  crab  apple;  our  finest  double  rose,  from  the  common 
wild  rose.  The  form,  size,  and  quality  of  most  modern  agricultural 
products  have  been  much  improved  in  the  same  way. 

The  man  who  has  made  the  greatest  success  in  raising  wheat  without 
irrigation,  in  the  arid  west,  secures  his  seed  for  planting  in  this  way. 
He  keeps  in  the  best  possible  condition  a  few  acres  of  his  best  land  on 
which  to  raise  his  seed  wheat.  When  this  wheat  is  ripe  and  ready  to  cut, 
he  goes  through  it  and  selects  the  largest,  fullest,  heads  and  gathers  them 
by  hand  into  a  sack.  When  he  has  secured  in  this  way  enough  wheat 
to  sow  for  next  year's  seed,  he  cuts  and  threshes  the  rest  of  this  patch  and 
gets  seed  enough  from  it  for  many  hundred  acres,  whose  crop  he  markets. 
Next  season  he  sows  the  hand-selected  wheat  again  for  seed,  and  again 
selects  the  best.  In  this  way  he  has  greatly  increased  the  quality  and 
yield  of  his  grain. 

LESSON  LV 

MAKING  OUR  HOMES  BEAUTIFUL 

1.  What  homes  near  the  school  look  beautiful  and  inviting? 
Which  do  not  ? 

2.  Describe  the  home  that  you  think  shows  most  taste  and 
beauty  in  its  surroundings. 

3.  What    schools    and    public    buildings    have    beautiful 

grounds  ? 

4.  Is  your  own  home  as  neat  and  clean  and  pretty  as  you 

would  like  it? 

5.  Can  we  make  our  school  grounds  or  buildings  look 

better?  How? 


96 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


6.  Is  there  any  rubbish  to  remove  ?  Are  there  any  paths  to 
level  ?  trees  to  trim  ?  shrubs  to  train  ?  lawns  to  cut  ? 

7.  Is  there  a  plot  of  ground  on  which  flowers  could  be 


Boys  of  the  Utah  State  Normal  Training  School,   Buildeng   a 
School  Arbor  and  Planting  Vines 


planted?  Is  there  a  good  place  to  plant  a  rose  bush  or  a 
climbing  vine  or  shrub? 

8.  Draw  a  plan  for  walks  and  garden  around  a  home. 

9.  Name  and  describe  several  ornamental  shrubs  you  have 
seen. 

10.  Which   bloom?  Which   do   not?  Which   are   annuals 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  ';7 

and  which  are  perennials?  Suggest  suitable  places  to  ])hmt 
them. 

11.  Mention  flowers  that  bloom  early;  others  that  bloom 
later;  and  others  that  bloom  until  winter  frosts  kill  them. 
How  may  this  knowledge  aid  us  in  making  our  homes  prettier  ? 

12.  Mention  beautiful  house  plants  that  you  know. 
Which  grow  from  seeds?  Which  grow  from  slips?  What 
house  plants  have  you  at  home?  What  care  do  they  need? 

13.  What  have  you  done  to  make  your  home  more  beau- 
tiful?   What  more  can  you  do? 

THE  BUILDERS 

I  dwell   near  a  murmur  of  leaves, 

And  my  labor  is  sweeter  than  rest; 
For  over  my  head  in  the  shade  of  the  eaves 

A  throstle  is  building  his  nest. 

And  he  teaches  me  gospels  of  joy, 

As  he  gurgles  and  shouts  in  his  toil; 
It  is  brimming  with  rapture,  his  wild  employ; 

Bearing  a  straw  for  spoil. 

So  I  know  'twas  a  joyous  God 
Who  stretched  out  the  splendor  of  things, 

And  gave  to  my  bird  the  cool  green  sod, 
A  sky  and  a  venture  of  wings. 

— Edwin  jMarkham 


LESSON  LVT 

THE  COMMON  TOAD 

1.  Describe  a  toad. 

2.  Of  what  use  to  it  is  its  color?  the  roughness  of  its  skin  ? 


98  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

3.  Describe  its  movements  on  land;  in  water. 

4.  When  is  it  the  more  active,  during  the  day  or  at  night  ? 

5.  What  food  does  it  eat  ? 

6.  How  does  it  catch  its  prey  ? 

7.  Where  did  it  pass  the  winter?  Have  you  ever  seen  toads 
plowed  up  in  the  spring?  How  did  they  become  covered 
so  deep  in  the  ground? 

8.  If  possible,  bring  one  to  school.  It  is  perfectly  harmless. 
Put  it  in  a  box  having  two  or  three  inches  of  moist  dirt  in  the 
bottom.  Feed  it  on  insects  of  any  kind — flies,  worms, 
caterpillars,  ants,  bees,  beetles,  spiders,  etc. 

9.  How  many  bugs  will  a  toad  eat  in  a  day  ?  Is  the  toad  a 
friend  to  man? 

10.  How  many  toads  can  you  find  near  your  home  ? 

11.  Tell  what  you  know  of  the  good  that  toads  do.  Did 
you  ever  know  of  one  doing  harm  ? 

12.  Bring  some  toad's  eggs  to  school.  Where  may  they  be 
found  ? 

13.  Describe  the  eggs  of  the  toad.  How  can  you  tell 
them  from  frog's  eggs? 

-  14.  Keep  the  eggs  in  a  large  glass  dish,  or  in  an  aquarium, 
with  some  water  cress,  slime,  and  other  plants,  and  watch 
them  hatch  and  grow. 

15.  Describe  the  changes  through  which  the  young  tadpoles 
pass. 

16.  How  many  of  them  live  until  they  get  four  legs  and  can 
hop  away  for  themselves? 

17.  What  enemies  have  tadpoles?  What  means  of  escape 
or  defense  have  they  ? 

18.  A  toad  will  often  lay  10,000  eggs  in  a  single  season. 
What  would  be  the  result  if  toads  had  no  enemies  ? 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  99 

19.  In  confinement,  see  if  tadpoles  ever  eat  one  another. 

20.  Have  we  enough  toads  to  eat  the  injurious  insects? 

2 1 .  How  may  their  numbers  be  increased  ? 

22.  How  long  will  a  toad  live  ? 

One  toad  was  kept  as  a  pet  for  twenty-five  years,  and 
another  lived  in  a  garden  in  England  for  thirty-six  years. 
They  can  go  without  food  for  more  than  a  year  at  a  time  with 
litde  injury. 

23.  How  does  man  needlessly  destroy  many  toads  ? 

24.  How  does  a  toad  drink? 

Experiment. — Keep  a  toad  in  a  dry  place  for  24  hours,  allowing  it  no 
water,  and  then  carefully  weigh  it.  Let  it  sit  for  a  time  in  mud  or  shallow 
water;  then  w^igh  it  again.     What  causes  his  increase  in  weight? 

Note.— Like  the  frog,  the  toad  absorbs  water  through  the  skin. 


LESSON  LVII 
THE  EARTH  WORM 

1.  In  what  places  are  there  many  earthworms?  Where  are 
there  few?  : 

Experiment  i.— Select  and  measure  off  a  square  yard  of  land  where 
there  are  know^n  to  be  earthw^orms.  Count  the  numhcr  of  entranas 
that  are  found.  Sweep  the  surface  clean,  and  collect  and  weigh 
each  night  and  morning  all  the  small  heaps  of  dirt  found  near  the 
mouths  of  the  entrances. 

2.  Where  does  this  dirt  come  from?  Is  as  much  dirt  placed 
there  in  the  daytime  as  in  the  night  ? 

To  fmd  the  earthworms  at  work,  look  for  them  early  in  the 
morning  or  in  the  evening  or  by  the  light  of  a  lantern  at 
night.     A  shower  will  induce  them  to  come  to  the  surface. 


lOO  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

3.  What  is  the  average  amount  of  castings  every  twenty- 
four  hours  on  a  square  yard  ?  How  much  would  this  be  on  an 
acre  ?  How  much  earth  would  be  brought  to  the  surface  of  a 
square  yard  in  three  months  ? 

4.  Examine  this  dirt  with  a  lens;  compare  it  with  other 
dirt  near.  Have  the  worms  improved  its  quality?  Is  the 
earthworm  useful  or  harmful  to  the  farmer  ? 

5.  As  these  earthworms  work  year  after  year,  what  changes 
will  they  produce  in  the  soil? 

Experiment  2. — With  a  garden  trowel,  scrape  away  carefully  the  dirt 
from  a  worm's  burrow  until  the  bottom  is  reached.  Note  the  size,  direc- 
tion, and  depth  of  the  burrow,  and  whatever  may  be  found  in  it. 

6.  Draw  a  section  of  an  earthworm's  home.  How  deep  is 
it? 

7.  Is  there  more  than  one  worm  found  in  a  burrow? 

8.  What  does  the  earthworm  eat?  Did  you  find  any  food 
in  the  burrow  ?  What  kind  of  soil  do  they  prefer  ? 

9.  How  do  they  bore  their  way  through  the  ground?  Put 
one  or  more  in  a  glass  of  damp  earth  and  study  them  for  a  few 
days. 

Experiment  3. — Expose  a  worm  on  a  piece  of  paper  to  the  sunshine. 
Is  there  any  evidence  of  distress  ?  Dip  it  into  water  to  moisten  its  body 
and  see  if  it  then  seems  to  be  uncomfortable.  Does  it  prefer  light  or 
darkness  ? 

10.  How  does  it  crawl  ?  Which  end  goes  first  ?  Touch  each 
end  and  find  out  whether  one  seems  to  be  more  sensitive  than 
the  other. 

1 1 .  Try  to  find  out  if  the  worm  can  see  or  smell. 

12.  Examine  a  worm  carefully  with  a  microscope  and  tell 
all  you  can  about  its  structure. 


FOURTH  GR.\DE— SPRING  WORK  loi 

13.  Why  is  it  difficult  for  a  robin  to  draw  an  earthworm 
from  its  hole  in  the  ground? 

14.  Make  a  drawing  of  an  earthworm. 

15.  Describe  the  eggs  of  an  earthworm. 

16.  Why    are    they    sometimes    called    "angle    worms"? 

17.  What  great  good  do  these  little  animals  do  ? 

18.  Can  you  fmd  that  they  injure  any  useful  plants  ? 

LESSON   LVIII 
STUDY  OF  INSECTS 

1.  What  insects  do  you  know^  when  you  see  them  ?  Make  a 
list  of  all  the  different  kinds  that  you  can  think  of. 

2.  Where  is  each  kind  found? 
Consult  your  Natural  History  Calendar. 

3.  Which  are  seen  by  daylight?  Which  are  active  at  night? 

4.  Mention  insects  that  fly  in  the  air;  that  live  in  the  water; 
that  hide  in  the  ground  or  are  found  under  stones,  etc. 

5.  Which  are  useful  to  man?  What  good  do  they  do ? 

6.  Which  are  harmful ?  In  what  ways? 

7.  What  food  have  you  seen  insects  eating?  What  do 
grasshoppers  eat?  What  foods  are  eaten  by  bees ?  flies?  ants? 
mosquitoes  ?  butterflies  ?  codling  moths  ? 

8.  Bring  to  the  class  samples  of  leaves,  bark,  fruil,  etc. 
that  you  have  found  partly  eaten  by  insects. 

9.  Study  and  describe  the  mouth  parts  of  the  grasshopper, 
fly,  mosquito,  or  of  other  common  insects. 

10.  What  insects  have  a  sting?  For  what  do  they  use  it? 

11.  In  what  Avays  do  insects  defend  themselves  or  escai)C 
from  their  enemies?  Can  you  mention   any   that   arc   pro- 


I02 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


tected  by  their  color  ?  their  shape  ?  their  speed  ?  their  armor  ? 

12.  Have  all  insects  wings?  Which  have  two?  Which 
have  four  ?  Do  all  insects  need  wings  ? 

13.  What  insects  live  in  swarms  or  large  communities  ? 

14.  Which  go  generally  in  pairs  or  alone  ? 

15.  Which  do  great  damage  when  found  in  great  numbers? 
Which  are  troublesome  in  our  homes?  in  orchards?  in 
fields  ?  How  do  we  get  rid  of  them  ? 

16.  What  natural  enemies  have  insects  ? 


LESSON  LIX 


LIFE  HISTORY  OF  INSECTS 

1.  How  many  legs  have  most  insects?  Examine  many 
specimens. 

2.  What  is  the  greatest  difference  between  the  bodies  of 
insects  and  those  of  other  animals?  It  is  from  this  feature 
that  they  derive  their  name.      The  word,  insect,  means  cut  in. 

3.  Into  how  many  parts  is  an  insect's  body  divided?  De- 
scribe each  part.  To  which  part  are  the  wings  attached  ?  the 
legs?  the  feelers,  or  antennae?  Examine  many  insects  to  see 
if  all  their  bodies  are  made  on  the  same  general  plan. 

4.  Do  insects  grow  or  increase  in  size?  Do  w^e  see  tiny 
house  flies,  others  partly  grown,  and  still  others  fully  grown  ? 
Observe  bees,  butterflies,  grasshoppers,  mosquitoes,  and 
other  common  insects  in  this  respect. 

5.  From  what  do  insects  come?  What  changes  does  an 
insect  undergo  in  reaching  its  perfect  form  from  the  egg  ? 

Experiment. — Hunt  for  the  eggs,  pupae,  or  larvas  of  any  common 
insects,  and  collect  samples  to  study.  Keep  them  in  conditions  similar 
to  those  they  have  been  in  and  watch  them  develop. 


FOURTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  lo; 

Ants  may  be  observed  by  putting  part  of  an  ant  bed  into  a  iarj^c  glass 
jar,  or  into  a  box  with  a  pane  of  glass  for  one  side  of  it.  The  lx)X 
should  be  darkened  except  when  being  observed,  as  ants  work  better  in 
the  dark. 

Mosquitoes  may  be  hatched  in  the  schoolroom  by  getting  a  pan  of 
water  containing  "wrigglers,"  and  placing  a  piece  of  netting  over  it  to 
keep  the  mosquitoes  from  flying  away  when  hatched. 

6.  Report  to  the  class  all  discoveries  made  about  in.sects, 
and  record  in  the  Natural  History  Calendar  your  observa- 
tions. 

7.  Draw  the  different  parts  of  a  grasshopper  and  a  butter- 

fly. 


LESSON  LX 
THE  HONEYBEE 

1.  If  possible,  visit  an  apiary  and  talk  with  the  bee-keeper 
about  the  bees. 

2.  Describe  a  beehive  and  tell  how  it  is  made  to  serve  the 
needs  of   the  bees.     Draw  one.     Alake   a   miniature   hi\e. 

3.  Examine  the  honeycomb.  Notice  the  shape  and  size  of 
the  cells;  the  thinness  of  the  walls;  and  how  the  wise  little 
bee  wastes  neither  room  nor  wax  in  building  them. 

4.  Why  does  not  the  honey  run  out  while  the  cells  are  being 
filled?  Notice  how  each  cell  is  sealed  over  when  it  is  full. 

5.  Where  does  the  bee  get  its  honey?  How  docs  it  get  it? 
Watch  bees  while  at  work  among  the  flowers,  (limb  into  a 
fruit  tree  when  it  is  full  of  blossoms  and  sit  perfectly  still  for 
a  short  time,  and  you  will  be  surjjriscd  at  the  number  of  bees 
you  can  hear  and  see  at  work  gathering  their  store  of  sweet- 
ness. 


104 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


6.  Does  the  bee  get  anything  from  the  flowers  besides 
honey  ? 

The  yellow  balls  often  seen  attached  to  their  thighs  are 
made  from  the  pollen  of  the  flowers  and  are  used  in  making 
"bee  bread." 

7.  Examine  with  a  lens  the  legs  of  a  honeybee.  Can  you 
find  the  Httle  hairs  that  form  the ''brushes"  and  the  "bas- 
kets"? 

8.  What  good  does  the  bee  do  the  flower  in  its  visits  ? 

9.  Are  all  the  bees  in  the  hive  alike?  Do  they  ah  perform 
the  same  duties?  Tell  what  you  know  about  the  queen;  the 
drone;  the  worker. 

10.  Where  are  the  bee  eggs  laid?  By  whom  are  they 
laid? 

11.  Describe  the  growth  of  the  bee  from  the  egg,  and  tell 
how  the  young  bee  is  nursed. 

12.  Did  you  ever  see  bees  "  swarm  ?  "  Describe  and  explain 
the  swarming  of  bees. 

13.  Why  are  the  beehives  generally  placed  on  a  bench  some 
distance  above  the  ground?  What  are  the  most  dangerous 
enemies  of  the  bees? 

14.  How  do  the  bees  defend  themselves  from  their  enemies  ? 

15.  How  does  the  bee-keeper  protect  himself  when  working 
in  a  hive? 

16.  How  many  pounds  of  honey  may  be  taken  from  a  hive 
in  a  season? 

17.  Why  does  the  bee-keeper  remove  the  honey  from  the 
comb  and  replace  the  latter?  Describe  a  honey  sepa- 
rator. 

18.  How  do  the  bees  spend  the  winter  ? 

19.  What  do  you  know  of  their  social  habits  ? 


FOURTH   GRADE— SPRING   WORK 


lO: 


SiL\ER- Penciled  \\Y/\xdotte 


LESSON    LXI 

THE  HEN 

1.  What  kinds  of  food  have 
you  seen  a  hen  eat? 

2.  What  kinds  are  given  her? 
What  kinds  does  she  get  her- 
self? 

3.  How  does  she  get  her 
food?  What  other  birds  are 
"scratchers"  ?  Compare  the  hen 
with  the  quail,  grouse,  prairie  chicken,  sage-hen,  pine  hen,  etc. 

4.  Describe  the  hen's  bill  and  feet,  and  tell  how  they  are 
used  in  food-getting. 

5.  How  does  the  hen  drink?  Why  does  she  raise  her  head? 

6.  Why   do   chickens  swallow  bits   of  gravel?  How  are 

grains  and  other  hard  seeds  made  fine  enough  for  digestion  ? 

Experiment  i. — When  a  chicken  is  "drawn"  at  home,  examine  the 
crop  and  gizzard  and  their  contents,  and  infer  the  use  and  action  of 
each  of  these  organs. 

7.  Describe  the  arrangement,  structure,  size,  shape,  uses, 
and  molting  of  the  hen's  feathers. 

8.  What  shelter  should  chickens  have  ?  Draw  a  model  hen 
house. 

9.  Describe  the  hen's  movements  in  walking,  scratching, 
flying,  etc. 

10.  Describe  the  language  of  hens.  Imitate  their  sounds 
in  crowing,  cackhng,  calling  their  young,  quieting  a  brood, 
alarm,  etc. 

11.  Can  a  hen  hear?  W^here  are  her  ears?  Describe  ihcm. 

12.  Can  she  smell?  Do  you  think  she  can  taste ? 


io6 


NATURE   STUDY   BY   GRADES 


Experiment  2. — If  possible  get  a  hen  that  wants  to  set  and  put  her 
in  a  large  box  or  other  suitable  shelter  near  the  school.  Make  her 
a  good  nest  and  fill  it  with  as  many  eggs  as  she  can  cover  easily. 
Give  her  proper  food  and  care  and  observe  her  actions  until  her  brood 
is  hatched  and  reared. 

13.  How  long  are  the  eggs  in  hatching?  Are  they  ever 
allowed  to  get  cold?   Why?   Does  the  hen  ever  turn  them 

over?  Infer  a  reason. 

14.  Describe  the  little  chicks, 
and  how  they  grow. 

15.  How  are  eggs  hatched  ar- 
tificially? Describe  an  incubator. 

16.  Chickens  are  raised  chiefly 
for  what  two  purposes  ? 

17.  Name  breeds  that  are  good 
layers;  that  are  good  "broilers" 
and  "friers." 

18.  How  many  eggs  will  a  good 
layer  produce  in  a  year?  a  poor 
layer  ?  What  should  be  done  with 
the  poor  layers? 

19.  What  pests  often  trouble  poultry?  Suggest  remedies. 
What  diseases  are  common  among  them?  How  may  they 
be  prevented  ? 

20.  Examine  an  egg  carefully:  find  a  purpose  in  its  shape, 
shell,  lining,  and  contents. 

2T.  What  time  of  year  are  most  eggs  produced? 
22.  When  plentiful,  how  may  they  be  preserved  until  the 
time  of  scarcity? 

Note.  Besides  being  placed  in  cold  storage,  they  may  be  packed  in 
coarse  salt  or  dipped  in  a  solution  of  lime  and  salt  to  fill  the  pores  in  the 
shell,  and  kept  in  a  cool  place. 


B.\RRED  Plymouth  Rock 


FIFTH  GRADE-FALL  WORK  jq" 


FIFTH  GRADE-FALL  WORK 


TO  AUTUMN 

Season  of  mists  and  mellow  fruitfulness, 

Close  bosom-friend  of  the  maturing  sun; 
Conspiring  with  him  how  to  load  and  bless 

With  fruit  the  vines  that  round  the  thatch-eaves  run; 
To  bend  with  apples  the  mossed  cottage  trees, 

And  fill  all  fruit  with  ripeness  to  the  core 
To  swell  the  gourd  and  plump  the  hazel  shells 

With  a  sweet  kernel;  to  set  budding  more, 
And  still  more,  later  flowers  for  the  bees, 
Until  they  think  warm  days  will  never  cease, 
For  summer  has  o'er-brimmed  their  clammy  cells. 

— John  Keats 


LESSON   I 

IMPORTANCE  OF  WEATHER 

To  THE  Teacher. — The  weather  exerts  so  constant  and  important 
an  influence  upon  all  nature  that  it  should  receive  frequent  attention  in 
every  grade  and  throughout  the  year,  until  its  laws  and  effects  are 
gradually  unfolded  to  the  pupil's  mind.  In  doing  this  work  it  is  dilTicuIt 
to  avoid,  entirely,  repeating  or  reviewing  work  previously  done,  but  each 
lesson  should  lead  up  to  the  development  of  a  thought  that  will  be  new 
to  most  of  the  class. 

1.  From  what  you  have  learned  about  the  weather,  describe 
what  it  will  probably  be  this  fall. 

2.  What  is  the  average  temperature  now?  What  will  it 
be  a  month  from  now?  two  months  from  now? 

3.  What  will  be  the  chief  cause  of  this  change  in  tempera- 
ture ? 


lo8  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GR.\DES 

4.  Hang  a  thermometer  where  it  will  show  the  true  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  out  of  doors.  The  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
should  not  fall  upon  it,  nor  should  it  hang  in  the  coldest  place 
on  the  north  side  of  the  house. 

5.  At  regular  times  during  each  day  observe  the  tem- 
perature. Find  the  highest,  the  lowest,  and  the  average  of 
each  day  and  record  your  observations  in  a  notebook. 

6.  Find  the  weekly  average  temperature. 

7.  Find  the  average  rate  of  change  in  the  temperature  as 
the  season  advances. 

8.  What  kind  of  storms  do  we  have  during  the  autumn 
months  ?  Are  they  frequent  ?  What  effect  do  they  have  upon 
crops  ? 

9.  When  does  the  first  snow  storm  generally  come?  Are 
the  crops  all  gathered? 

10.  In  what  part  of  the  United  States  does  snow  come 
first?  Why?  In  what  part  does  it  never  fall?  Why? 

11.  What  parts  of  the  earth  are  always  cold?  What  zone 
is  always  warm? 

12.  In  what  zones  are  changes  in  weather  conditions  great- 
est? Why? 

13.  Does  the  weather  remain  the  same  throughout  the 
year  in  any  part  of  the  earth?  Why  do  we  need  changes  of 
weather  ? 

14.  If  weather  changes  are  unusually  severe,  or  if  they  fail 
to  occur  near  their  usual  time,  what  may  be  the  effect  upon 
crops?  upon  herds? 

15.  Do  you  know  of  any  failure  of  crops  that  was  caused  by 
unusual  weather  conditions? 

16.  How  does  a  failure  of  crops  affect  the  price  of  products  ? 
Why? 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK 


T09 


17.  How  does  a  knowledge  of  the  weather  aid  in  securing 
a  better  harvest? 

18.  Describe  the  changes  gradually  taking  place  in  plant 
life  and  animal  life  as  winter  approaches. 

19.  What  preparations  does  man  make  for  winter  ? 

LESSON  II 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  HEAT 

I.  What  change  do  you  notice  in  the  place  where  the  sun 
rises  ? 


Using  the  Sciameter 


This  sciameter  was  made  bv  a  pupil  in  the  manual  training  rjoni  as  foIlows_  A  smooth 
board  a  about  6x20  inches  has  its  upper  surface  marked  oH  into  inch  squares.  .Near  one  end 
two  uprights  b,  b  are  fastened,  and  between  them  the  hollow  box  c.  three  inches  square,  swings 
on  an  axis,  to  one  end  of  which  is  lixed  a  fmger  that  moves  with  it  over  a  protractor  ^.  A 
spirit-level  mav  be  attaclied  at  any  convenient  place  to  tell  when  tlie  board  a  is  horizontal. 

In  using  the  sciameter,  place  the  board  in  a  horizontal  iwsition  on  a  north  and  south  Ime 
at  noon,  with  the  box  toward  the  sun  so  that  its  sides  are  mrallel  to  the  rays  that  [xiss  throu'^h 
it.  A  sunbeam  three  inches  square  then  falls  on  the  board  and  is  si)read  over  a  tx-rtain  numt)er 
of  square  inches,  according  to  the  angle  of  the  sun's  rays  as  shown  by  the  Imger  over  the 
protractor. 


no         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

2.  Does  the  sun  set  in  the  same  place  each  evening  ? 

3.  With  the  aid  of  a  shadow  stick,  or  a  sciameter,  find  out 
if  the  position  of  the  sun  at  noon  is  changing.  Record  your 
observations. 

4.  From  changes  noticed  in  the  position  of  the  sun  at  these 
three  points,  tell  what  change  is  gradually  taking  place  in  the 
sun's  daily  path. 

5.  Is  its  path  through  the  sky  getting  longer  or  shorter? 
Why?  How  does  the  length  of  the  day  affect  the  amount  of 
heat  received  from  the  sun  ? 

6.  How  does  the  change  in  the  sun's  path  change  the  angle 
of  its  rays?  How  does  this  change  the  amount  of  heat  re- 
ceived on  any  given  amount  of  surface?  Illustrate  this  by  a 
drawing. 

7.  Trace  with  the  finger  the  path  of  the  sun  through  the 
sky  now;  in  June;  in  December.  Show  the  changes  now 
taking  place  in  its  path. 

8.  Compare  the  changes  in  average  temperature  with  the 
changes  in  the  length  of  day  and  the  slant  of  the  sun's  rays. 

9.  By  using  the  sciameter  each  noon,  the  movement  of  the 
sun  can  be  discovered.  By  recording  the  number  of  square 
inches  daily  covered  by  the  sunbeam  in  it,  explain  the  influ- 
ence that  the  change  in  the  position  of  the  sun  has  upon 
temperature. 

10.  Think  of  experiments  and  illustrations  in  nature  that 
show  the  difference  between  direct  and  slanting  rays  of 
heat. 

11.  When  the  sunbeam  3  inches  square  in  the  sciameter 
covers  12  square  inches,  how  will  the  heat  falling  on  i  square 
inch  compare  w^ith  that  received  when  the  same  beam  covers 
20  square  inches? 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK 


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3 


Change  in  Angle  of  Sun's  Rays 


Distribution  of  the  Light  and  Heat  of  Sun's  Rays  as  affected 
BY  the  Angle  at  Which  They  Strike  a  Surface 


_j 


SEPT.        OCT.         NOV.  DEC.         JAN.  FEB.         MAR.         APR.  MAY        JUNE 

Shadow  Changes  Due  to  the  Ch.^nge  in  Sl.vnt  of  tue 
Sun's  Rays  Each  Month 

12.  What,  then,  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  changes  of  the 
average  temperature  ? 

13.  What  effect  has  the  shortening  of  the  day  upon  the 


112  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GR.YDES 

amount  of  heat  received  from  the  sun  ?  Prove  this  by  experi- 
ments or  by  illustrations  from  nature. 

14.  Illustrate  by  means  of  the  shadow  stick  and  drawings 
the  same  principles  as  are  shown  by  the  sciameter. 

LESSON  III 
EFFECTS  OF  SUNSHINE 

1.  What  month  in  the  year  has  the  most  sunshine  ? 

2.  In  which  month  is  there  most  cloudiness?  Is  there  any 
relation  between  cloudiness  and  rainfall? 

3.  Keep  a  sunshine  chart  during  the  year. 
(See  Fourth  Grade,  Lesson  11,  p.  18.) 

Experiment  i. — Cover  two  similar  potted  plants  with  glass  jars. 
Place  one  in  the  direct  sunshine  and  the  other  in  the  dark  for  a  short 
time.  Note  which  plant  gives  off  the  more  moisture  as  shown  by  the 
water  condensed  on  the  inner  walls  of  the  glass  jars. 

4.  Infer  from  this  experiment  which  plant  is  the  more 
active. 

5.  Compare  the  growth  made  by  plants  in  a  dark  cellar 
with  that  of  plants  growing  in  the  sunshine. 

6.  On  which  branches  of  a  tree  are  the  largest  and  strongest 
leaves?  the  biggest  and  best  fruits  ?  Why? 

7.  Why  can  more  sugar  be  made  from  a  ton  of  beets  raised 
on  irrigated  lands  in  Colorado  or  Utah,  than  from  a  ton  raised 
in  the  regions  of  the  Mississippi  valley  where  there  is  so  much 
more  rainfall?     What  states  make  the  most  beet  sugar? 

8.  In  Salt  Lake  City,  269  days  in  the  year  are  days  of  sun- 
shine, and  in  Denver,  304.  How  do  these  compare  with  the 
amount  of  sunshine  in  New  Orleans  ?  in  Chicago  ?  in  New 
York  ?  in  your  own  locality  ? 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK  113 

9.  Alfalfa  is  a  plant  that  yields  three  crops  of  hay  during 
the  summer.     How  will  a  long,  cloudy  spell  affect  the  crop  ? 

10.  Learn  by  studying  the  daily  weather  maps  and  re])orts 
what  parts  of  our  country  have  most  cloudiness  and  what 
parts  have  most  sunshine. 

11.  Prove  that  plants  love  sunshine  and  seek  it. 

12.  Do  any  plants  thrive  best  in  the  shade?  Name  some. 

13.  Do  plants  ever  get  too  much  sunshine  ? 

Experiment  2. — Place  a  fern  or  some  moss  in  the  strong  sunshine  and 
see  if  any  bad  effects  follow. 

14.  Notice  carefully  both  wild  and  cultivated  plants  that 
grow  in  the  shade,  and  compare  them  with  plants  of  the  same 
kind  growing  in  the  sun. 

15.  How  may  weeds  in  the  garden  affect  the  supply  of 
light  needed  by  the  useful  plants  there  ? 

16  What  plants  grow  under  the  trees  in  the  woods?  How 
do  they  contrive  to  get  light  enough  for  their  needs  ?  Are  they 
as  numerous  and  as  thrifty  as  plants  under  similar  con- 
ditions growing  in  sunshine  ? 

LESSON  IV 

LENGTH  OF  THE  DAY 

1.  For  a  few  weeks  notice  the  time  of  sunrise  and  of 
sunset,  and  find  out  just  how  fast  the  length  of  day  and  night  is 
changing. 

2.  Which  month  contains  the  longest  days?  What  can  you 
say  of  the  length  of  the  nights  in  this  month  ? 

3.  Which  month  contains  the  shortest  days?  the  longest 

nights  ? 


114         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

4.  Does  the  length  of  the  day  correspond  in  any  way  with 
the  length  of  the  sun's  daily  path  through  the  sky  ? 

5.  How  does  the  length  of  the  day  affect  us?  When  do  we 
need  longest  days? 

6.  How  do  long  days  affect  the  temperature?  Why?  Do 
they  affect  plant  growth?  How? 

7.  Find  the  longest  day  in  the  year;  the  longest  night. 

8.  Explain  the  cause  of  the  change  in  the  length  of  day  and 
night. 

LESSON   V 

WEATHER.— CAUSES  AND  EFFECT 

1.  How  do  the  sun's  rays  strike  the  various  parts  of  the 
earth's  surface?  If  you  were  at  the  equator  at  noon  about 
September  20,  where  would  the  sun  appear  to  be  ?  If  at  New 
York,  where  would  it  appear  to  be?  If  at  the  north  pole, 
where  would  it  seem  to  be? 

Experiment. — Hold  a  globe  in  the  sunshine  and  show  how  the  sun's 
rays  fall  at  various  angles  on  its  different  parts.  Illustrate  the  same 
principle  by  drawings  on  the  blackboard. 

2.  Describe  the  apparent  movements  of  the  sun  during  the 
year. 

3.  Account  for  the  four  seasons  in  the  temperate  zone  as 
resulting  from  the  yearly  motion  of  the  sun. 

In  the  summer  the  sun  comes  northward  until  its  vertical 
rays  fall  23  J°  north  of  the  equator.  In  the  winter  it  goes  as 
far  south. 

4.  Locate  the  five  zones  as  a  result  of  this  movement.  Tell 
what  you  know  of  the  temperature  of  each  zone  and  what 
makes  it  have  that  temperature. 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK  1 1  5 

5.  What  must  be  the  seasons  in  each  zone  as  fixed  by  this 
movement  of  the  sun? 

6.  How  does  the  dimate  in  each  zone  influence  plant  hfe  ? 
What  plants  grow  in  the  frigid  zone?  in  the  temperate 
zone?  in  the  torrid  zone? 

7.  Tell  what  you  know  of  the  effects  of  a  cold,  backward 
spring,  or  of  a  late  frost  upon  crops.  How  may  an  early  fall 
influence  crops? 

8.  What  would  be  the  result  if  the  farmers  in  one  zone 
should  plant  the  crops  grown  in  either  of  the  other  zones  ? 

9.  How  do  the  changes  in  temperature,  length  of  day,  etc., 
influence  animal  life  in  the  fall  in  this  zone  ? 

10.  From  the  Natural  History  Calendar  tell  what  animals 
are  disappearing.  Why  are  they  going  ?  Where  are  they  going  ? 

11.  How  do  we  care  for  our  domestic  animals  during  the 
winter  ? 

12.  How  do  winter  dwellers  keep  comfortable  during  the 
cold  weather? 

13.  In  which  zone  is  man  the  happiest  and  most  civilized? 
Where  is  he  most  indolent  and  lazy  ?  Infer  a  reason. 

14.  Explain  how  climate  influences  man's  occupations  and 
development  as  well  as  it  does  the  growth  of  animals  and 
plants. 


LESSON  VI 

CAUSES  OF  WIND 

Experhnent  i.— Heat  the  air  in  a  Florence  flask  and  conduct  the  over- 
flow through  a  perforated  cork  and  bent  glass  tube  under  the  surface 
of  water.     Account  for  the  escaping  air  bubbles. 


ii6 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


Remove  the  flame  and  cool  the  flask.  Account  for  the  water  being 
drawn  into  the  flask. 

1.  Why  does  a  bal- 
loon filled  with  hot  air 
rise? 

2.  Account  for  the 
draught  of  a  stove  or 
chimney. 

3.  Why  does  the  air 
rise  above  the  heated 
stove  or  radiator  ? 

4.  Give   many   illustrations   proving   that   hot   air   rises. 

Experiment  2. — In  a  beaker  of  water  place  a  few  particles  of  chalk 
dust,  wet  sawdust,  or  other  substance  that  will  neither  sink  nor  swim 
readily,  but  remain  suspended  in  the  water.  Hold  a  flame  under  one 
side  of  the  beaker  and  note  by  the  moving  particles  the  movements  of 
the  water  caused  by  the  heat. 

5.  Why  does  the  water  rise  immediately  above  the 
flame  ? 

6.  Why  does  it  flow  downward  on  the  other  side? 

7.  What  is  the  effect  of  heat  upon  air?  upon  water? 
(See  Fourth  Grade,  Lesson  29.)  Do  you  remember  whether 
heat  ever  expands  solids? 

8.  If  a  given  quantity  of  air  or  water  is  thus  expanded  by 
heat,  how  will  its  weight  compare  with  that  which  is  not  so 
expanded  ?  Can  you  illustrate  this  law  by  other  examples  ? 

9.  What  will  be  the  effect  if  air  becomes  very  warm  over  a 
given  area — warmer  than  the  surrounding  air  ? 

10.  As  the  heated  air  rises,  what  takes  its  place  ? 
This  movement  of  air  is  called  wind. 

11.  What  part  of  the  earth's  surface  is  warmest?  Where, 


FIFTH  GR/VDE— FALL  WORK  i  i  -j 

then,  will  most  air  be  made  to  rise?  In  the  immediate  area 
where  the  air  is  rising,  no  wind  is  felt.     Why  ? 

12.  Why  do  the  great  regular  winds  blow  towarfl  the 
equator  from  both  poles?  Do  they  blow  directly  south  in 
this  hemisphere  and  north  in  the  southern? 

Experiment  3. — Cause  a  globe  to  be  revoh'ed  on  its  axis,  and  note  the 
greater  distance  covered  by  a  point  at  the  equator  than  by  one  near  the 
pole,  in  making  a  revolution.  As  the  air  at  any  given  point  has  about 
the  same  forward  movement  as  the  surface  of  the  earth  at  that  ix)int, 
all  air  moving  toward  the  equator  will  naturally  lag  behind  in  the  motion 
from  west  to  east. 

13.  The  above  law  will  give  these  winds  what  direction  if 
north  of  the  equator  ?  if  south  of  it  ? 


TO  THE  EVENING  WIND 

Spirit  that  breathest  through  my  lattice,  thou 
That  cool'st  the  twilight  of  the  sultry  day, 

Gratefully  flows  thy  freshness  round  my  brow: 
Thou  hast  been  out  upon  the  deep  to  play, 

Riding  all  day  the  wild  blue  waves  till  now, 

Roughening  their  crests,  and  scattering  high  their  spray 

And  swelling  the  white  sail.     I  welcome  thee 

To  the  scorched  land,  thou  w^anderer  of  the  sea! 

Nor  I  alone — a  thousand  bosoms  round 

Inhale  thee  in  the  fulness  of  delight; 
And  languid  forms  rise  up,  and  pulses  bound 

Livelier,  at  coming  of  the  wind  at  night; 
And,  languishing  to  hear  thy  grateful  sound, 

Lies  the  vast  inland  stretched  beyond  the  sight. 
Go  forth  into  the  gathering  shade;  go  forth, 
God's  blessing  breathed  upon  the  fainting  carlh! 

Go,  rock  the  little  woodbird  in  his  nest, 

Curl  the  still  waters,  bright  with  stars,  and  rouse 


ii8 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


The  wide  old  wood  from  his  majestic  rest, 

Summoning  from  the  innumerable  boughs 
The  strange,  deep  harmonies  that  haunt  his  breast; 

Pleasant  shall  be  thy  way  where  meekly  bows 
The  shutting  flower,  and  darkling  waters  pass, 
And  where  the  o'ershadowing  branches  sweep  the  grass. 

The  faint  old  man  shall  lean  his  silver  head 
To  feel  thee;  thou  shalt  kiss  the  child  asleep, 

And  dry  the  moistened  curls  that  overspread 

His  temples,  while  his  breathing  grows  more  deep; 

And  they  who  stand  about  the  sick  man's  bed, 
Shall  joy  to  listen  to  thy  distant  sweep, 

And  softly  part  his  curtains  to  allow 

Thy  visit,  grateful  to  his  burning  brow. 

Go — but  the  circle  of  eternal  change. 

Which  is  the  life  of  nature,  shall  restore. 
With  sounds  and  scents  from  all  thy  mighty  range, 

Thee  to  thy  birthplace  of  the  deep  once  more; 
Sweet  odors  in  the  sea-air,  sweet  and  strange. 

Shall  tell  the  homesick  mariner  of  the  shore; 
And,  listening  to  thy  murmur,  he  shall  deem 
He  hears  the  rustling  leaf  and  running  stream. 

— William  Cullen  Bryant. 


LESSON  VII 


THE  WEATHER  BUREAU 


1.  Have  you  ever  visited   a  Weather  Bureau  station?    If 
so,  describe  what  you  saw  and  tell  what  work  is  done  there. 

2.  What  reports  are  issued  daily  ? 

3.  What  predictions  are  made  concerning  the  weather? 

4.  How  long  beforehand  can   the   weather  be   predicted 
with  a  degree  of  certainty? 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK  l  19 

« 

5.  How  does  the  telegraph  aid  the  Weather  Bureau  in 
making  its  predictions? 

6.  At  what  rate  do  the  most  rapid  storms  move  ? 

7.  Knowing  the  velocity  and  direction  of  a  storm,  or  cold 
wave,  how  may  its  time  of  reaching  any  given  city  be  pre- 
dicted? 

8.  How  will  a  foreknowledge  of  the  approach  of  a  cold  wa\'e 
or  "killing  frost"  be  a  benefit  to  a  gardener?  a  fruit 
raiser  ? 

9.  What  precautions  do  sailors  take  when  warned  of  a 
coming  hurricane? 

10.  Tell  in  what  ways  the  following  people  may  avoid  loss 
or  inconvenience  by  knowing  the  day  previous  that  it  will 
rain — the  school-boy,  the  wash-woman,  the  carpenter,  the 
pleasure  seeker,  etc. 

11.  How^  has  a  warning  of  the  approach  of  a  hurricane 
saved  people's  lives? 

12.  What  harm  is  done  by  a  cold  wave  or  a  hot  wave  that 
might  be  lessened  through  knowing  beforehand  of  its  ap- 
proach ? 

13.  Describe  a  weather  map.     What  information  docs  it 

contain  ? 

14.  Are  the  people  in  one  part  of  the  United  States  bene- 
fitted by  knowing  the  kind  of  weather  that  the  people  in  some 
other  part  are  having  ?     Illustrate  this. 

15.  Why  do  all  civilized  nations  maintain  many  weather 
bureau  stations? 

16.  Besides  their  influence  in  saving  lives  and  i)roperty, 
how  do  they  add  to  our  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  weather  ? 

17.  Study  the  .signals  used  to  denote  different  weather 
conditions. 


120  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


LESSON  VIII 
CAUSES  OF  PRECIPITATION 

1.  Review  the  laws  of  evaporation  and  condensation  given 
in  the  Fourth  Grade  (See  Lessons  lo,  39,  40,  and  41.) 

2.  On  what  part  of  the  earth's  surface  is  there  the  greatest 
evaporation?  Is  it  a  good  thing  that  three  fourths  of  the 
earth's  surface  is  water?  How  do  you  think  it  would  affect 
the  rainfall  if  three  fourths  of  the  earth's  surface  were 
land  ? 

3.  In  what  zones  does  evaporation  occur  most  rapidly? 
Why? 

4.  How  does  the  vapor  from  the  ocean  reach  inland  ? 

5.  In  traveling  inland,  what  things  may  cause  a  change  in 
the  temperature  of  the  vapor  from  the  ocean  ? 

6.  If  the  vapor  pass  over  a  mountain,  what,  change  is 
produced?  What  effect  will  this  change  in  temperature 
cause?  Prove  that  mountains  are  colder  than  low  land. 

7.  When  a  cold  current  of  air  comes  against  aw^arm  cur- 
rent, what  may  happen  to  the  vapor  in  the  latter? 

8.  When  the  moist  air  near  the  ground  becomes  very  warm, 
as  on  a  sultry  day  in  summer,  what  movement  is  it  likely  to 
take?  Why  does  hot  air  rise? 

9.  As  this  warm  air  rises,  how  will  it  affect  the  barometer? 
Why? 

10.  When  it  reaches  the  cold  upper  regions,  what  will 
happen?  The  amount  and  rapidity  of  rainfall  is  influenced 
by  what  conditions? 

11.  Does  snow  or  ice  ever  evaporate  without  melting? 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK  l2i 

When  air  is  very  dry,  it  takes  up  moisture  even  when  very 
cold. 

12.  Under  what  conditions  is  snow  formed?  Do  you  think 
snow^  can  pass  to  vapor,  and  vapor  pass  to  snow,  without  first 
turning  into  water? 

13.  Describe  a  hailstorm,  and  conditions  under  which  it 
occurs. 

TO  A  CLOUD 

Beautiful  cloud!  with  folds  so  soft  and  fair, 

Swimming  in  the  pure,  quiet  air! 
Thy  fleeces  bathe  in  sunlight,  while  below 

Thy  shadow  o'er  the  vale  moves  slow; 
Where,  midst  their  labor,  pause  the  reaper  train, 

As  cool  it  comes  along  the  grain. 

Bright  meteor!  for  the  summer  noontide  made! 

Thy  peerless  beauty  yet  shall  fade. 
The  sun,  that  fills  with  light  each  glistening  fold, 

Shall  set,  and  leave  thee  dark  and  cold; 
The  blast  shall  rend  thy  skirts,  or  thou  maycst  frown 

In  the  dark  heaven  when  the  storms  come  down; 
And  weep  in  rain  till  man's  inquiring  eye 

Miss  thee,  forever,  from  the  sky. 

— William  Cullen  Bryant. 

LESSON   IX 
REGIONS  OF  HEAVY  AND  LIGHT  RAINFALL 

1.  What  part  of  the  United  States  has  a  heavy  rainfall? 
Account  for  this.  Consider  the  directions  of  the  winds,  the 
location  and  size  of  mountains,  etc.,  as  influencing  rainfall. 

2.  How  does   this   influence   the  crops?  the   ])opulation? 


122 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


Irrigating  Strawberries  Near  Provo,  Utah 


3.  What  part  of  the  United  States  is  arid  and  used  to  be 
called  the  Great  American  Desert?  Account  for  this.  Con- 
sider distance  from  the  ocean,  intervening  mountains,  direc- 
tion of  winds,  nature  of  surface,  etc. 

4.  What  substitute  for  rainfall  do  farmers  use  in  the  arid 
regions?  How  is  this  affecting  the  population  of  these 
regions  ? 

5.  Describe  methods  of  irrigation. 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  W(JRK  123 

6.  How  is  our  government  aiding  irrigation  in  the  arid 
•regions? 

7.  What  countries  have  greatest  rainfall  ?  Why  ? 

8.  How  does  the  abundant  heat  and  moisture  in  ilic 
iropics  affect  vegetation  ?  Describe  a  tropical  forest. 

Note. — Fields  of  alfalfa  in  the  tropics  yield  ten  crops  a  year,  while 
market  gardens  often  are  made  to  )ield  three.  Roads  through  forests 
will  grow  up  and  become  impassable  in  a  few  days,  if  not  kept  clear. 

8.  Account  for  the  size  of  the  Amazon  River.  If  the 
Andes  Mountains  extended  entirely  around  the  coast  of  South 
America,  how  would  it  change  the  size  of  that  river?  What 
would  be  the  effect  upon  the  interior  ? 

9.  Suppose  the  ocean  winds  were  to  change  from  the  east  to 
the  west  in  South  America,  what  changes  in  the  rainfall  do 
you  think  would  follow  there?  In  the  southern  part  of 
South  America  the  winds  do  come  from  the  west.  What 
is  the  effect  upon  the  rainfall  there?  Which  is  the  more 
productive,    Chili    or   Argentina?  Why? 

10.  Why  is  Sahara  a  desert  ?  What  changes  in  the  surface 
of  Africa  would  you  suggest  to  cause  more  rain  in  that 
region  ? 

11.  Compare  the  annual  rainfall  of  \arious  countries  and 
account  for  the  differences  noticed.  Consult  a  good  geo- 
graphy. 

The  mean  annual  rainfall  in  New  Orleans  is  63  inches;  in 
Chicago,  34.55  inches;  in  Salt  Lake  City,  16.2  inches. 

Note.— Scientists  say  that  enough  heat  comes  from  the  sun  each  day 
to  evaporate  half  an  inch  of  water  from  the  entire  surface  of  the  ocean. 
If  all  this  were  brought  by  the  winds  to  the  land  and  fell  as  rain,  it  would 
give  us  a  daily  shower  of  an  inch  and  a  half,  or  an  annual  rainfall  e(|iial 
almost  to  the  flood. 


124         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

LESSON  X 

RESPIRATION 

Experiment  i. — Count  the  number  of  times  that  you  breathe  in  one 
minute.  The  whole  class  may  do  this  while  the  teacher  marks  the  time. 
Repeat  the  experiment  several  times  until  all  can  breathe  naturally 
while  counting.  Find  the  average  number  of  respirations  per  minute 
for  the  class. 

Experiment  2. — Fill  a  half  gallon  fruit  jar  with  water  and  invert  it 
over  a  vessel  containing  water,  keeping  its  mouth  under  the  surface  so 
that  the  water  will  not  run  out.  Insert  the  bent  end  of  a  glass  tube  under 
the  mouth  of  the  jar,  and  breathe  through  it  until  the  water  is  displaced 
by  the  exhaled  air.  Repeat  this  several  times,  breathing  as  naturally 
as  possible,  and  iind  the  average  number  of  respiraiions  necessary  to 
displace  the  two  quarts  of  water. 

In  a  similar  way,  by  exhaling  all  the  air  possible  at  one  breath,  the 
capacity  of  the  lungs  of  various  pupils  may  be  tested. 

Note. — Since  conscious  breathing  is  apt  to  be  unnatural,  the  foregoing 
experiments  should  not  be  regarded  as  accurate,  but  as  a  basis  for  some 
interesting  calculations  upon  the  amount  of  air  a  person  needs  every 
hour. 

1.  If  a  pupil  breathes  18  times  every  minute  and  exhales 
each  time  i  pint  of  air,  how  many  gallons  will  he  exhale  in  a 
minute?  in  an  hour? 

2.  If  one  pupil  exhales  2  J  gallons  of  air  in  a  minute,  how 
many  gallons  will  all  the  pupils  in  the  room  exhale  in  a  minute  ? 
in  an  hour  ? 

Since  one  gallon  contains  231  cubic  inches,  express  the 
answers  to  the  last  queries  in  cubic  inches  and  cubic  feet. 

Experiment  3. — By  means  of  a  straw  or  glass  tube,  pass  the  breath 
through  a  glass  of  limewater  and  note  the  milky  color  given  to  the  lime- 
water.  This  is  due  to  the  formation  of  a  kind  of  chalk  dust  in  the  water 
and  proves  that  a  gas  called  carbon  dioxide  is  in  the  breath. 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK 


125 


3.  What  do  you  remember  about  this  gas?  (See  Fourth 
Grade,  Lesson  31).     Compare  it  with  oxygen. 

Experiment  4. — Breathe  into  a  wide-mouthed  glass  jar  several  times 
un<il  the  breath  has  displaced  all  the  air.  Close  it  tightly  and  keep  it 
in  a  warm  place  for  a  day  or  two.  The  foul  odor  developed  tells  of 
the  presence  of  organic  matter  in  a  state  of  poisonous  decay. 

4.  What  will  be  the  effect  upon  the  surrounding  air  of 
pouring  into  it  2  J  gallons  a  minute  of  exhaled  air  laden  with 
its  carbon  dioxide  and  other  impurities  ? 

5.  The  amount  of  foul  matter  exhaled  by  a  grown  person  in 
an  hour  is  enough  to  make  3,000  cubic  feet  of  air  unfit  to 
breathe.  If  a  pupil  exhales  f  as  much  as  an  adult,  how 
much  fresh  air  should  enter  the  room  each  hour  to  insure  a 
sufficient  supply  for  all  the  pupils  in  it  ? 

6.  Measure  the  ventilating  flues  and  estimate  the  speed 
of  a  stream  of  air  necessary  to  give  the  amount  needed. 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  dangers  of  foul  air  ? 

8.  Should  children  in  bed  cover  their  heads?  Why? 

9.  Should  a  child  be  shut  in  a  small  closet  long  as  a  punish- 
ment? Why? 

10.  Is  cold  air  always  fresh?  Should  windows  in  sleeping 
rooms  be  raised  as  well  in  winter  as  in  summer  ? 

11.  What  is  the  danger  in  allowing  a  cold  draught  to  strike 
one? 

12.  Do  we  use  as  much  air  when  aslee])  as  when  awake.-' 
How  does  exercise  affect  our  breathing  ? 

13.  Do  all  animals  in  proportion  to  their  size  need  as  much 
air  as  man  does? 

14.  Which  animals  seem  to  use  little  or  no  air  (hiring 
the  winter? 


126 


NATURE. STUDY  BY  GRADES 


LESSON  XI 


RESPIRATION  (Continued) 


Experiment  i. — Inhale  a  long,  deep  breath.  Exhale  as  completely 
as  possible.  Repeat  several  times  and  notice  the  action  of  the  chest 
and  abdomen  each  time. 

1.  Describe  the  movement  of  the  chest  when  we  inhale; 
when  we  exhale.  How  do  these  movements  influence  the 
size  of  the  chest  cavity  ? 

2.  How  do  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  move  when  we  inhale 
all  we  can?  How  do  they  change  as  we  exhale  all  we  can? 
How  will  these  movements  increase  or  decrease  the  size  of  the 
chest  cavity? 


Experiment  2. — A  number  of  rings  at- 
tached at  equal  distances  to  an  upright 
rod  are  allowed  to  hang  downward. 
Notice  the  size  of  the  cavity  they  enclose 
as  you  look  down  the  rod.  Now  raise 
the  rings  until  they  stand  at  right  angles 
to  the  rod,  and  notice  the  greatly  increased 
size  of  the  cavity  which  they  encircle. 


.  3,  Compare  the  ribs  attached  to 
the  backbone  with  the  apparatus 
just  described  and  account  for 
the  rising  and  falling  of  the  chest 
while  breathing. 

4.  How  will  a  stooped-over  position  influence  respiration, 
or  breathing? 

5.  Describe  a  healthful  position  and  give  reasons. 

6.  How  does  clothing  often  interfere  with  free  breathing? 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK  127 

Describe  proper  and   improper  kinds  of  clothing   in   their 
relation  to  breathing. 

7.  What  habits  of  exercise  will  promote  good  respiration  ? 

8.  Why  do  we  need  much  fresh  air  to  pass  into  our 
lungs  ? 

9.  Mention  habits  and  occupations  that  keep  us  from 
getting  all  the  fresh  air  that  we  need. 

10.  Are  bed  curtains  healthful? 

11.  Is  there  any  good  in  sighing?  Why  do  we  gape,  or 
yawn? 

LESSON  XII 
VENTILATION 

1.  At  what  season  of  the  year  is  ventilation  most  ])erfect? 
Why  ?  When  is  it  most  imperfect  ?  Why  ? 

2.  When  do  we  need  to  give  the  most  careful  attention  to 
ventilating  our  homes  and  schoolrooms? 

3.  Describe  ways  of  ventilating  rooms  at  home.  Should 
currents  of  cold  air  enter  a  room  where  they  will  strike  the 
occupants?  Why? 

4.  What  is  the  chief  cause  that  makes  air  currents?  Recall 
the   effect  of  heat  upon   gases  and  liquids. 

(See   Fourth   Grade,   Lesson   29.) 

Experiment  i. — Hold  a  thermometer  for  a  few  minutes  near  the  tloor 
and  then  near  the  ceiling.  Note  and  account  for  the  ditTerence  in  tem- 
perature. 

Experiment  2. — Place  a  lamp  chimney  over  a  short  piece  of  candle, 
lighted.  Note  the  current  of  air  it  creates,  especially  if  a  jiiece  of  card- 
board be  lowered  as  shown  in  the  cut  on  p.  126,  dividing  the  si)acc  for 
an  upward  and  a  downward  current  to  pass. 


128 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


Experiment  3. — With  a  flame,  or  smoke-paper,  detect  and  trace  the 
air  currents  near  a  stove,  furnace,  grate,  radiator,  or  any  opening  near 


the  ceiHng  or  floor. 


Account  for  the  movements  discovered. 


5.  Where  is  the  air  found  to  be 
moving  upward?  Why?  Downward? 
Why  ?  Outward  ?  Why  ?  Inward  ?  Why  ? 

6.  Compare  the  old-fashioned  fire- 
place and  the  modern  heating  stove 
as  to  their  influence  upon  the  ventila- 
tion of  our  homes. 

7.  If  the  schoolroom  has  a  modern 
ventilating  plant,  study  it  carefully. 
Find  out  and  explain  how  school- 
rooms are  supplied  with  fresh,  warm 
air. 

8.  Why  is  one  so  apt  to  take  cold 
when  sitting  near  the  cold  wall  in  a 
large  building? 

9.  Should  all  the  fresh  air  needed 
in  a  room  enter  from  a  single  window,  or  a  little  from  each 
of  several?  Why? 

10.  Should  the  air  be  admitted  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  the 
windows?  Why? 

11.  Why  do  we  not  re-inhale  at  once  the  air  we  exhale? 
Watch  the  breath  on  a  cold  morning  when  it  can  be  seen,  and 
find  out  if  any  of  it  is  immediately  drawn  back  into  the  lungs, 
and  how  nature  has  a  way  to  prevent  this  evil. 

12.  What  is  the  effect  upon  us  of  breathing  impure 
air?     Is  cold  air  always  pure? 

13.  What  occupations  afford  most  fresh  air  ? 

14.  What  tradesmen  do  not  have  enough  pure  air  ? 


Experiment  2 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK 


12g 


15.  Mention  evil  effects  of  breathing  impure  air. 

16.  Show  how  the  constant  tendency  of  the  air  to  move  is  a 
good  thing  for  the  health  of  the  people. 

LESSON  XIII 

CARBON  DIOXIDE 

Experiment  i. — To  obtain  some  carbon  dioxide  to  examine,  pour  a 
few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  upon  a  piece  of  limestone  or  marble 
in  the  bottom  of  a  glass  jar;  or  use  vinegar  on  bicarbonate  of  soda  in 
the  same  way.  Lowering  a  piece  of  lighted  candle  into  the  jar  and 
allowing  it  to  remain  until  the  light  goes  out,  or  breathing  into  it  several 
times  also  will  produce  a  supply  of  this  gas,  though  not  so  pure  as 
that  produced  by  the  first  method. 

1.  What  is  the  color  of  carbon  dioxide?  Has  it  an  odor? 

2.  How  may  it  be  detected  ? 

Experiment  2. — Lower  a  lighted  candle  into  this  gas;  or  pour  some  of 
it  from  the  jar  over  the  flame  of  the  candle  as  if  it  were  water.  Describe 
the  result. 

3.  How  does  its  weight  compare  with  that  of  air  ? 

4.  If  a  small  animal  were  dropped  into  a  jar  of  carbon 
dioxide,  what  would  be  the  result  ? 

5.  How  can  we  tell  the  presence  of  this  gas  before  entering 

it? 

Note. — A  workman  once  fell  into  what  looked  to  be  a  deep,  cmjjty 
vat  in  a  tannery.  It  was  full  of  this  gas,  however,  and  ho  died  Ix-fore 
assistance  could  rescue  him. 

6.  From  the  weight  of  this  gas,  in  what  places  do  you  think 
it  will  likely  be  found  ? 

7.  Why  do  workmen  lower  a  lighted  candle  into  an  old 
well  or  mine  shaft  before  entering  it? 


I30 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


Note. — Great  quantities  of  carbon  dioxide  are  produced  in  nature 
not  only  by  the  breathing  of  animals,  but  by  combustion,  decay,  and 
other  processes.  Plants  have  the  power  to  use  up  this  gas  and  free  the 
air  from  an  excess  of  it;  otherwise,  animal  life  would  soon  perish  from 
the  earth. 

8.  How  is  lime  water  affected  by  a  contact  with  carbon 
dioxide  ?  What  use  is  made  of  this  fact  ? 


LESSON  XIV 

OXYGEN 


Experiment  i. — Un- 
der the  direction  of  the 
teacher,  oxygen  gas 
may  be  made  in  the 
following  manner: 

]\Iix  equal  parts  of 
black  oxide  of  man- 
ganese and  potassic 
chlorate  in  a  large  test 
tube  fitted  with  a  cork 
through  which  passes 
one  end  of  a  glass  tube. 
The  other  end  of  the 
tube  reaches  under  a 
bottle  of  water  inverted  and  having  the  mouth  below  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  another  vessel,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

Apply  heat  to  the  mixture  and  oxygen  will  be  given  off  and  pass 
along  the  glass  tube,  until  as  bubbles  it  displaces  the  water  in  the  in- 
verted bottle.  Several  bottles  may  be  filled  with  oxygen  in  this  way 
for  use  in  experiments. 

1.  Explain  the  arrangement  of  the  apparatus  described. 

2.  Will  the  first  bubbles  of  gas  be  pure  oxygen?  Why? 

3.  Why  does  the  oxygen  take  the  place  of  water? 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK  I  y 

Experiment  2. — Light  a  match  or  small  splinter.  When  it  has  Ijurned 
long  enough  to  leave  a  live  coal  at  the  end,  blow  out  the  llamc  and  thrust 
the  live  spark  at  once  into  the  oxygen. 

4.  Account  for  the  results. 

5.  How  does  oxygen  differ  from  carbon  dioxide  in  its 
influence  upon  combustion? 

Experiment  3. — Place  a  small  piece  of  phosphorus  into  oxygen  gas; 
if  dry,  it  will  usually  burst  into  a  flame. 

6.  Why  is  phosphorus  usually  kept  submerged  in  water? 

Experiment  4. — Heat  red  hot  a  piece  of  watch  spring  to  take  out  the 
temper.  Straighten  it  and  file  one  end  thin  and  pointed.  Dip  this  end 
into  sulphur  and  then  into  a  flame  to  light  the  bit  of  sulphur  on  the  end. 
Quickly  place  this  end  into  a  bottle  of  oxygen  and  the  steel  spring  will 
burn  with  a  beautiful  light. 

7.  Why  is  the  sulphur  used  in  this  experiment?  Compare 
with  its  use  on  a  match. 

8.  What  power  of  oxygen  is  sho^^^l  in  all  these  experiments  ? 
How  does  it  compare  with  carbon  dioxide  ? 

9.  One  fifth  of  the  atmosphere  is  oxygen.  How  would  a 
greater  proportion  influence  all  kinds  of  fires  ? 

10.  If  steel  burns  in  oxygen  gas,  what  might  happen  to  the 
earth  itself  if  the  atmosphere  were  all  oxygen  ? 

11.  Why  is  a  good  supply  of  air  needed  in  all  cases  where 
a  good  fire  or  rapid  combustion  is  desired  ? 

12.  What  would  be  the  effect  of  breathing  pure  oxygen 

gas? 

Note.— An  animal  placed  in  oxygen  gas  seems  to  be  stimulated  very 
greatly,  and  in  a  short  time  will  die  in  the  greatest  apparent  excitement, 
if  not  removed.  Physicians  sometimes  use  it  in  extreme  cases  as  a 
powerful  stimulant. 


132 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


LESSON   XV 


EVERGREEN  AND  DECIDUOUS  TREES 


1.  Bring  to  the  class  sample  twigs  from  various  kinds  of 
evergreen  trees  and  of  trees  that  shed  their  leaves.  The  latter 
are  called  deciduous  trees. 

Note. — Good  pictures  of  both  kinds  of  trees  should  be  at  hand,  unless 
the  trees  themselves  can  be  seen. 

2.  Compare  the  leaves  of  the  two  kinds  and  give  reasons 
for  the  differences  noticed.  Why  is  one  kind  broad,  flat,  and 
thin,  while  the  other  is  long,  slim,  and  needle-shaped  ?  Which 
kind  would  catch  and  hold  most  snow  in  a  snow  storm? 
Which  are  sometimes  eaten  by  animals  as  food  ? 

3.  Try  to  break  or  tear  the  leaves.  Which  kind  is  the 
tougher?  Which  is  the  more  subject  to  fierce  winds  that 
might  beat  them  to  pieces? 

4.  Compare  them  as  to  numbers.  How  does  the  ever- 
green make  up  for  the  small  size  of  its  leaves?  Which  kind 
of  tree  do  you  think  will  have  the  greater  leaf  surface? 

5.  Notice  the  fine,  compact  structure  of  the  one  and  the 
coarse,  loose,  veinings  of  the  other,  and  think  of  a  purpose  in 
this. 

6.  What  difference  do  you  notice  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
leaves  on  the  twigs  ?  Is  there  a  wise  purpose  in  this  ? 

7.  Where  are  the  most  vigorous  leaves  generally  found 
on  a  deciduous  tree  ?  on  an  evergreen  ? 

8.  Does  an  evergreen  ever  shed  its  leaves?  When?  How 
long  does  an  evergreen  leaf  do  service? 

9.  What  would  be  the  result  to  most  deciduous  trees  if 
they  did  not  shed  their  leaves  in  the  fall  ? 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WORK 


^33 


10.  Try  to  discover  just  how  they  get  rid  of  their  leaves 
when  the  right  time  comes. 

11.  Compare  the  two  kinds  of  twigs.     Test,  by  berKhng, 
the  toughness  of  each.     Why  are  the  evergreen  branches  so 


Props  Used  to  Prevent  the  Heavily  Laden  Limbs  of  a  Young 

Pear  Tree  from  Breaking 

tough?  If  they  were  britde,  what  harm  would  come  to  the 
tree  ?  What  deciduous  trees  need  toughest  branches  ?  Why  ? 

12.  At  what  angle  do  the  branches  of  each  leave  their 
respective  trunks  ?  Is  there  an  advantage  in  this  ? 

13.  Why  should  the  branches  of  the  evergreen  extend  out- 
ward horizontally,  or  even  slope  dowTiward  as  some  do  ? 

Note — The  heaviest  snow  storm  ever  known  in  Salt  Lake  Ciiy  tell 
there  in  the  autumn  of  1908.  Hundreds  of  sliaile  and  fruit  trees,  for 
which  ihe  city  is  noted,  were  ruined  by  having  their  largest  limbs  l)roken 
down  by  the  loads  of  snow  that  c'ung  to  the  unshed  leaves  and  l)ranches. 


134         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

but  only  a  few  of  the  many  evergreens  found  on  the  lawns  and  gardens 
suffered  any  injury  whatever. 

14.  What    loads    besides    snow    sometimes    break    down 
trees  ? 

15.  What  trees  have  you  seen  injured  in  this  way?  How 
may  they  be  protected  from  this  danger? 


LESSON  XVI 
EVERGREEN  AND  DECIDUOUS  TREES  (Continued) 

1.  What  general  difference  do  you  see  in  the  shape  of 
evergreen  and  deciduous  trees  ? 

2.  How  is  the  cone  shape  of  the  former  secured?  Con- 
sider the  size  and  shape  of  the  trunk,  and  the  size  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  branches.     Compare  with  deciduous  trees. 

3.  Which  trees  are  most  liable  to  be  split  open  and  ruined 
by  heavy  loads  of  any  sort  on  their  limbs?  Which  kind  has 
the  most  of  such  loads  to  carry  ? 

4.  In  the  case  of  most  evergreens,  on  what  part  of  each 
branch  does  the  snow  fall?  Note  how  the  branches  are 
arranged  in  whorls,  like  umbrellas,  around  the  trunk,  growing 
smaller  from  the  ground  upward.  What  is  the  purpose  of 
this  arrangement? 

5.  Compare  the  bark  of  the  two  kinds  of  trees.  Consider 
color,  odor,  thickness,  toughness,  surface,  etc.,  and  find 
adaptations  to  the  various  needs  of  the  trees. 

6.  Why  do  some  trees  need  thicker  and  rougher  bark  than 
others  ?  Mention  things  that  injure  trees. 

7.  Are  evergreens  the  best  shade  trees  ? 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALL  WoRK  l  5- 

8.  Would  it  be  well  for  fruit  trees  to  have  a  cone  shape? 

9.  Do  the  high,  sunny  branches,  or  the  low,  shady  ones  have 
the  fine  fruits?  Does  this  suggest  a  reason  for  the  wider 
spreading  branches  of  fruit  trees,  and  a  hint  for  jjruning  a 
young  orchard? 

10.  Which  of  these  two  kinds  of  trees  is  the  more  useful 
to  man  ?  Mention  all  the  uses  to  man  of  the  evergreen  trees, 
of  the  deciduous  trees.  Which  uses  depend  upon  habits 
of  growth  ? 

1 1 .  Which  kind  furnishes  the  more  lumber  ?  Why  ? 

1 2 .  Which  makes  better  shade  trees  ? 

13.  Which  kind  is  beautiful  and  used  for  ornament  ? 

14.  Which  is  the  more  abundant  ? 

15.  Which  grows  in  dense  forests  ? 

16.  What  parts  of  our  state  contain  forests  ? 

17.  Where  are  the  forest  regions  of  the  United  Stales  ? 

LESSON  XVII 
LUMBERING 

1.  Secure  samples  of  as  many  kinds  of  luml)er  as  possible. 

2.  Learn  to  recognize  each  kind  at  sight. 

3.  Which  kinds  are  hard  ?  Make  a  list  of  the  hard  woods 

4.  Which  kinds  are  soft  ?  Make  a  list  of  them. 

5.  Describe  each  of  the  following  kinds  of  wood  and 
mention  at  least  one  thing  for  which  each  is  used;  i)ine,  oak, 
poplar,  cedar,  rosewood,  mahogany. 

6.  What  causes  the  grain  seen  in  most  wood  ? 

Expenmeni  i. — Take  a  piece  of  a  limb  or  trunk  of  a  sniull  tree,  about 
three  or  four  inches  in  diameter  and  a  foot  or  two  long— it"  ]i(issilil(\  one 


136 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


that  contains  a  knot — and  saw  it  into  miniature  boards.  Without  trim- 
ming the  edges  of  the  boards,  plane  and  sandpaper  their  surfaces  and 
study  the  grain  in  each. 

7.  What  relation  has  the  grain,  seen  in  the  surface  of  the 
board,  to  the  rings  seen  in  the  end  of  the  log  from  which  they 
were  made? 

8.  How  does  a  knot  affect  the  grain  ? 

9.  Can  you  tell  w^hich  side  of  a  board  is  the  "  heart  side  ?  " 

10.  What  kinds  of  lumber  are  valuable  for  their  beautiful 

grain? 

11.  Which  kinds  are  prized  because  of  the  high  polish  they 

can  receive?  ' 

12.  Why  is  quarter  sawed  oak  more  valuable  than  that 
sawed  in  the  ordinary  way? 


Experiment  2.— Take  a  piece  of  an  oak  limb  of  convenient  size  and 
saw  it  lengthwise  through  the  center.  Saw  one  half  of  it  into  miniature 
boards  as  in  Experiment  i.  Saw  the  other  half  down  the  center,  cutting 
it  into  two  quarters  of  the  original  piece.  Cut  boards  from  both  faces 
of  one  of  these  quarters  and  surface  them. 

13.  Which  boards  have  the  more  beautiful  surface  ? 

14.  Which    method    of    sawing    is    the    more     econom- 
ical? 

15.  Why   is   quarter   sawed  oak  worth    more    than    the 

other  ? 


FIFTH  GRADE— FALJ.  WURR  137 


LESSON   XVIIT 
LUMBERING  (Continued) 


1.  What  trees  are  best  adapted  by  shape  to  make  him- 
ber? 

2.  What  should  be  the  shape  of  trees  to  furnish  the  best 
lumber  ?  What  should  be  the  size  of  the  branches  compared 
with  that  of  the  trunk?  Why  are  the  cone-shaped  trees 
best? 

3.  What  habit  of  growth  is  necessary  to  make  lumbering 
profitable?  Why? 

4.  Visit  a  logging  camp  and  a  sawmill,  if  possible,  and 
study  the  methods  used   in   converting   trees   into   lumber. 

Note. — Good  pictures  will  aid  much  in  giving  correct  ideas  of  this 
industry.  A  visit  to  a  lumber  yard  and  planing  mill  can  be  made  by 
most  classes  where  many  operations  with  lumber  may  be  seen. 

5.  How  are  the  logs  cut  down?  When  is  the  best  jime  to 
cut  them  down? 

6.  How  are  they  moved  to  the  mill  ?  When  is  this  part  of 
the  work  done  to  the  best  advantage  ? 

7.  How  does  snow  aid  in  moving  them? 

8.  How  does  high  water  in  some  places  aid   in   moving 

them  ? 

9.  In  cutting  out  the  large  trees  for  lumber,  what  care 
should  be  taken  of  the  small  ones  ?  Why  ? 

10.  What  time  of  the  year  are  forest  fires  most  dangerous? 
What  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  them  ? 

11.  Describe  a  circular  saw  and  tell  how  it  works. 

12.  Describe  a  band  saw  and  show  its  advantages. 


138 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


Note. — A  number  of  saws  fastened  to  a  frame  may  be  made  to  saw- 
many  boards  at  once.     Such  an  arrangment  of  saws  is  called  a  "gang 


saw. 


13.  Describe  any  method  of  sawing  that  you  may  have 
seen. 


Logs  Being  Floated  Dowtst  the  River  to  a  Sawmill 

14.  How  is  the  length  of  lumber  fixed?  its  width?  its 
thickness  ? 

1 5 .  How  are  logs  "  fed ' '  into  a  mill  ? 

16.  How  is  the  lumber  carried  off  and  trimmed  ? 

17.  What  waste  is  there  in  lumbering?  What  are  slabs 
and  how  are  they  sometimes  used  ? 

18.  What  uses  are  made  of  sawdust  ? 

19.  What  part  of  a  log  goes  to  waste  in  making  lumber? 

20.  Describe  how  lumber  is  shipped  by  land  and  by  water. 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 


139 


21.  Where  are  the  great  lumber  regions  of  the   United 
States  ? 

22.  What  is  the  price  of  various  kinds  of  kimber  ? 

23.  What  wasteful  and  unwise  destruction  of  the  forests 
has  been  practised  until  recent  years  in  the  United  States  ? 

24.  What  would  be  the  consequence  if  all  our  forests  were 
used  up  ? 

25.  What  efforts  are  now  being  made  to  keep  up  a  supply  of 
lumber  in  our  nation? 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 

LESSON   XIX 

STUDY  OF  A  FOSSIL 

To  THE  Teacher. — No  school  cabinet  is  complete  without  a  numl)cr 
of  fossils,  and  this  lesson  should  not  be  given  without  samples  that  the 
pupils  may  handle  and  study.  .  In  this  case  we  will  suppose  the  sample 
to  be  a  fossil  fish;  but  with  slight  changes  the  lesson  will  ser\-e  as  well  for 
a  fern,  a  piece  of  wood,  the  track  of  an  animal  in  the  mud,  turned  to  a 
stone,  or  almost  any  common  fossil. 

1.  Examine  carefully  the  specimen.     What  made  this  im- 
print in  the  stone? 

2.  What  is  there  about  it  that  causes  you  to  conclude  it  was 
a  fish  ?  Consider  the  size,  shape,  and  features  that  resemble 

a  fish. 

3.  Is  any  of  the  original  substance  of  the  iish  preserved? 

4.  How  may  the  fish  have  become  imbedded  in  ihe  stone? 


I40 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


5.  Was  this  always  a  stone?  What  about  it  indicates  that 
at  one  time  it  was  mud  and  under  water  ? 

6.  Does  mud  ever  change  to  stone  ?  Have  you  ever  seen  it 
harden  in  any  way  ?  Consider  mortar,  clay,  cement,  brick,  etc., 
and  how  each  is  hardened  by  man. 

7.  How  may  similar  results  be  obtained  in  nature?  What 
do  you  think  about  the  time  it  takes  nature  to  do  such  work  ? 

8.  Where  do  fishes  live  now?  What  do  they  eat?  Did 
similar  conditions  exist  when  this  fish  was  alive  ? 

9.  What  must  have  been  the  temperature  of  the  water  in 
which  it  lived  ?  Can  you  tell  whether  it  was  salt  or  fresh  water  ? 

10.  What  were  the  conditions  of  the  weather  when  this 
fish  lived  ?  of  the  atmosphere  ?  of  sunshine  ?  of  plant  life  ?  of 
animal  life?  What  makes  you  think  so?  How  does  this 
fossil  prove  these  conditions  ? 

11.  Under  what  conditions  may  this  fish  have  died  and 
become  covered  with  mud?  Do  fish  nowadays  ever  get 
buried  in  mud? 

12.  Where  was  this  fossil  found?  How  did  it  happen  to 
become  uncovered? 

13.  How  do  you  think  such  fossils  are  formed? 

14.  Have  you  ever  seen  leaves,  branches,  snails,  clams, 
etc.,  imbedded  in  the  mud  by  natural  causes  ? 

15.  Examine  the  mud  along  ditch  banks  or  margins  of 
ponds,  lakes,  swamps,  etc.,  and  discover  how  animals  and 
plants  may  become  imbedded  in  mud. 

16.  What  damage  is  often  done  by  high  water?  Have  you 
ever  seen  trees,  lumber,  parts  of  buildings,  bodies  of  animals, 
etc.,  swept  down  the  current  of  a  river  in  time  of  high  water  ? 

17.  What  becomes  of  such  freight  when  the  water  finally 
reaches  the  quiet  sea? 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  141 

When  these  objects  sink  to  the  bottom  and  are  coverc(J 
with  the  mud  that  settles  over  them,  they  may  gradually 
become  fossils  imbedded  in  mud,  which  the  great  weight  of 
water  above  gradually  turns  into  stone.  Future  generations 
may  discover  and  study  them. 

Experiment. — Make  some  artificial  fossils  by  pouring  some  clayey 
mud  into  any  convenient  vessel  and  let  it  partly  dry.  Then  place  on  top 
of  this  a  small  stick,  leaf,  or  insect  and  cover  with  more  mud.  Wht-n 
the  whole  is  dry,  there  will  be  little  difficulty  in  separating  the  hardened 
mud  so  as  to  show  the  fossils. 

18.  Collect  fossils  of  any  kind  for  the  school  cabinet  and 
study  them. 

LESSON  XX 
STUDY  OF  COAL 

1.  Bring  samples  of  different  kinds  of  coal  to  school  to 
study.  Let  the  collection  contain,  if  possible,  pieces  of 
anthracite,  bituminous,  and  cannel  coal,  peat,  coke,  charcoal, 
lignite,  etc. 

Experiment. — Note  the  color,  hardness,  weight,  etc.,  of  the  samples 
at  hand  and  see  which  will  burn  by  holding  a  fragment  of  each  in  a 
flame  by  means  of  pinchers. 

2.  Visit  a  coal  yard  and  see  how  coal  is  handled  there. 

3.  If  practicable,  visit  a  coal  mine,  or  lind  out  from  a  coal 
miner  all  you  can  about  how  coal  is  mined. 

4.  What  is  the  use  of  coal  ? 

5.  What  did  people  do  for  heat  before  coal  was  discovered  ? 
Did  they  use  heat  then  as  much  as  we  do  now  ? 

6.  What  substitutes  do  people  use  now  who  live  in  countries 
where  there  is  no  coal? 


142         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

7.  What  kinds  of  coal  do  you  use  at  home?  What  does  a 
ton  cost  ?  How  long  will  a  ton  last  ? 

8.  What  kind  is  used  in  school?  How  much  is  used  in  a 
month?  during  the  year? 

9.  From  what  mines  is  the  city  supplied  with  coal  ? 

10.  What  things  are  made  possible  by  the  use  of  coal  ? 

11.  Describe  some  of  the  results  if  all  the  coal  mines  should 
become  exhausted. 

12.  Find  out  all  you  can  of  the  history  and  growth  of  the 

mines  that  supply  your  city  with  coal. 

Note. — In  Utah  the  pioneers  burned  wood  for  several  years,  until 
it  seemed  that  the  scanty  supply  would  all  be  used.  The  legislature 
offered  a  large  reward  to  any  one  who  would  discover  a  bed  of  coal 
18  inches  thick  within  40  miles  of  the  capital.  A  mine  was  soon  opened 
at  a  town  called  Coalville  and  the  needs  of  the  people  supplied.  Many 
mines  in  various  parts  of  the  state  have  been  discovered  and  developed 
since.  The  history  of  coal  development  in  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia, 
Illinois,  or  other  states  would  be  interesting  knowledge  for  the  pupils 
of  schools  in  these  respective  states. 

13.  How   do   railroads   aid   in   the   development  of  coal 

mines  ? 

14.  Describe  how  coal  is  loaded  and  unloaded  from  cars, 

ships,  wagons,  etc. 

15.  Describe  lump,  egg,  nut,  and  slack  coal,  and  mention 
uses  of  each  kind. 

LESSON  XXI 
STUDY  OF  A  COAL  BED 

I.  What  states  produce  most  coal?  Which  have  no  coal 
mines  ?  Locate  on  a  map  the  great  coal  regions  of  the  United 
S  tastes. 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 


143 


2.  What  foreign  countries  have  great  coal  mines?  Which 
have  none  ?  Study  a  coal  map  of  the  world. 

Note. — California  and  Mexico  have  no  large  coal  mines.  Compare 
their  manufactures  with  those  of  Pennsylvania  and  England,  where- 
coal  is  abundant.     Explain  how  the  coal  supply  influences  industries. 

3.  What  important  substitute  for  coal  is  found  in  Cali- 
fornia? The  locomotives  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad 
use  crude  petroleum  for  fuel. 

4.  Why  is  coal  always  found  in  "beds"  or  "seams,"  while 
other  minerals  are  found  commonly  in  "veins"  or  "pockets?" 

A  Field  Lesson. — To  aid  in  understanding  how  coal  is  formed, 
visit  a  pond  or  swamp  where  flags,  cat-tails,  bulrushes,  and  other  rank 
vegetation  die  down  every  year  and  form  a  layer  of  vegetable  matter 
over  the  muddy  bottom.  Study  the  pond  and  follow  the  changes  that 
take  place  in  the  plants  that  grow  near  its  margins. 

5.  What  conditions  are  necessary  for  a  pond  or  marsh  to 
exist?  What  must  be  the  shape  of  the  earth  there?  Is  it  on 
high  land  or  low  land  ? 

6.  What  kind  of  bottom  must  it  have?  Would  a  gravelly, 
porous  bottom  answer  ?  Why  ? 

7.  What  must  be  its  water  supply  ?  Is  it  muddy  or  clear? 

8.  Can  you  tell  if  the  pond  is  growing  larger  or  smaller? 

Experiment.— Big  with  a  spade,  or  with  a  garden  trowel,  into  the 
layers  of  vegetable  matter,  and  note  the  changes  in  condition  and  color 
as  you  go  deeper.  Account  for  these  changes.  Take  a  section  to  school 
to  study.     When  dried,  see  if  any  portion  of  it  will  burn. 

9.  Tell  how  peat  is  formed  and  used.     Study  samples  of 

it. 

10.  Suppose  that  instead  of  flags,  rushes,  etc.,  dying  and 
forming  layers  of  peat,  there  were  dense  forests  of  trees  shed- 
ding their  tons  and  tor\s  of  leaves  at  short  intervals  and  ihi-ir 


144 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


immense  trunks  from  time  to  time,  making  a  great  layer  of 
vegetable  matter;  and  suppose  that  through  the  sinking 
of  the  earth's  crust  great  quantities  of  dirt  should  be  washed 
into  it  and  should  cover  it  under  a  great  pressure,  what 
effects  would  be  produced  ? 

11.  Find  out,  if  you  can,  if  coal  beds  generally  have  gravel 
or  clay  under  them.  Describe  the  rock  called  "mother  of 
coal"  by  miners. 

12.  What  kind  of  rock  usually  covers  coal  beds?  Is  it 
formed  in  layers  as  if  deposited  by  water? 

13.  Do  the  surroundings  of  a  coal  bed  give  evidence  of 
having  once  been  the  bottom  or  margin  of  a  swamp  ? 

Note. — Peat,  lignite,  bituminous  coal,  anthracite  coal,  and  graphite 
all  are  supposed  to  have  a  common  origin,  their  differences  being  due 
to  the  different  degrees  of  pressure,  heat,  and  age  through  which  they 
have  passed.     Examine  carefully  samples  of  each. 


LESSON  XXII 


COAL  MINES  AND  MINING 


To  THE  Teacher. — Unless  the  school  is  in  the  vicinity  of  some  kind 
of  mining  activity,  it  may  be  difficult  and  unprofitable  to  give  this 
lesson.  Where  conditions  arouse  it,  however,  children  show  a  wonder- 
ful interest  in  mining  and  can  easily  understand  most  of  its  operations. 
A  description  by  a  practical  miner,  good  magazine  articles  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  good  pictures  showing  workings,  etc.,  will  all  aid  in  making 
clear  conceptions. 

1.  If  possible,  visit  a  coal  mine  and  study  it. 

2.  How  do  miners  know  where  to  look  for  a  coal  bed?  Are 
gold  or  silver  mines  usually  found  in  such  places  ? 

3.  Are  coal  seams  always  near  the  surface  ? 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 


M. 


Coal  Miners  at  Work 


4.  Are  they  always  level?  What  may  have  changed  their 
position  ? 

5.  Describe  ways  of  reaching  the  coal. 

6.  When  the  coal  seam  is  reached,  is  all  the  coal  removed  as 
the  mine  is  developed? 

7.  What  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  the  mine  from 


cavmg  m 


w 


8.  How  is  fresh  air  supplied  to  the  miners  ? 

Note. — Often  two  shafts,  or  wells,  are  sunk  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
orkings.  A  hot  fire  at  the  bottom  of  one  of  these  will  make  ihe  air 
in  it  rise  rapidly,  thus  drawing  the  impure  air  out  of  the  mine,  while 
fresh  air  flows  down  the  other  shaft  to  take  its  place.  This  current  of 
air  is  made  to  circulate  through  all  the  passages  in  the  mine.  A  more 
expensive  way  is  to  pump  the  air  into  the  mine  with  machinery. 

9.  How  is  the  coal  broken  away  from  the  seam  ?  Describe 
drilling  and  blasting. 


146         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

10.  How  is  it  conveyed  to  the  surface  ?  Describe  mine  cars 
and  their  uses. 

1 1 .  What  are  some  of  the  dangers  to  the  miners  of  coal  ? 

12.  What  precautions  are  taken  to  protect  the  men  ? 

13.  How  are  the  various  sized  lumps  of  coal  separated  ? 

14.  How  is  the  coal  loaded  on  the  cars?  Describe  a  coal 
car  and  the  methods  of  unloading. 

15.  What  can  you  say  of  the  importance  of  this  industry  ? 

LESSON  xxm 

CHARCOAL  AND  COKE 

1.  Examine    samples    of    charcoal    and    coke.     In    what 
respects  are  they  alike  ?  In  what  respects  do  they  differ  ? 

2.  For  what  is  charcoal  used?  When  burning,   does  it 
give  off  smoke  ?  What  can  you  say  of  the  heat  that  it  makes  ? 

3.  For  what  is  coke  used?  How  does  it  compare  with  coal 
and  charcoal  in  the  smoke  and  heat  that  it  gives  off  ? 

4.  If  possible,  visit  a  charcoal  burner's  camp  and  study 
and  describe  the  way  charcoal  is  made. 

Experiment  i. — Place  some  small  bits  of  oak  or  other  hard  wood  into 
a  common  clay  pipe,  and  close  the  bowl  with  clay  or  plaster  of  paris. 
Heat  it  very  hot  and  test  the  gas  that  escapes  from  the  stem  with  a 
flame  to  see  if  it  will  burn.  When  this  gas  ceases  to  pass  off,  cool  and 
open  the  pipe  and  tell  what  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  bits  of  wood. 

5.  Why  did  not  the  wood  burn?  What  is  the  difference 
between  burning  and  what  did  take  place  ? 

Note. — Charcoal  is  made  on  a  large  scale  by  arranging  a  great  number 
of  pieces  of  hard  wood  into  a  cone-shaped  heap,  which  is  covered  first 
with  a  layer  of  straw  and  then  with  a  thick  covering  of  turf.     Several 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 


147 


small  holes  are  left  around  the  bottom  and  a  larger  one  at  the  top.  Tlu- 
pile  is  then  ignited  and  burns  slowly  until  the  whole  mass  is  highly 
heated.  The  holes  are  then  closed  and  the  pile  allowed  to  burn  and 
smoulder  for  several  days.  When  the  fire  goes  out  and  the  pile  cools, 
it  is  opened,  and  the  wood,  now  turned  into  charcoal,  is  found  in  the  .same 
position  as  placed  in  at  first. 

Experiment  2. — Place  powered  soft  coal  in  the  pipe  and  treat  it  the 
same  as  in  Experiment  i. 

6.  Compare  results  in  the  two  experiments.     Why  is  the 
air  kept  away  from  the  fuel  ? 

7.  Visit  the  gas  works  where  both  coke  and  gas  are  made. 

8.  What  other  products  come  from  coal  ? 

9.  Visit  coke  ovens,  if  possible,  and  learn  how  coke  is  made 
in  great  quantities  for  commercial  purposes. 


LESSON  XXIV 
THE  MOON 

1.  Study  the  moon  for  a  full  month  with  care,  and  record 
in  some  manner  your  observations.  This  work  will  ha\-e  to 
be  done  mostly  after  school,  but  will  take  only  a  few  moments 
each  evening.     Begin  the  work  at  the  time  of  new  moon. 

2.  Where  is  the  new  moon  first  seen?  At  what  time  oi 
day? 

3.  Did  you  ever  see  the  new  moon  in  any  other  part  of  the 
sky  ?  at  any  other  time  of  the  day  ? 

4.  In  what  direction  do  the  horns  of  the  new  moon  point  ? 
Did  you  ever  see  them  point  in  any  other  direction  ? 

5.  Is  the  new  moon  seen  each  evening  in  the  same  })Osition 
in  the  sky  at  the  same  hour  ? 


148         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

6.  Notice  the  time  the  moon  goes  down  each  night.  What 
change  in  time  do  you  notice? 

7.  Compare  its  position  with  respect  to  the  horizon  and 
stars  from  night  to  night,  and  find  out  if  it  is  moving,  and  if  so 
in  what  direction. 

8.  Is  it  changing  in  size  and  shape  ?  Describe  any  changes 
noticed. 

9.  Can  you  see  the  "old  moon  in  the  new  moon's  arms"  ? 

10.  How  long  does  it  take  the  new  moon  to  increase  to  the 
first  quarter  ? 

1 1 .  Where  is  the  moon  at  sunset  when  in  its  first  quarter  ? 
Where  was  it  at  sunset  when  a  new  moon?  Through  how 
many  degrees  has  it  passed  since  then  ?  Trace  with  the  finger 
the  path  it  has  passed  through  the  sky. 

12.  How  long  does  it  take  the  new  moon  to  become  " full"  ? 

13.  Where  is  the  full  moon  at  sunset?  Did  you  ever  see 
a  full  moon  any  where  else  at  sunset  ?  How  many  degrees  has 
the  moon  now  traversed  since  it  was  new  ? 

14.  Note  its  time  of  rising.  How  much  later  does  it  rise 
each  night  than  on  the  preceding  one?  How  does  this  com- 
pare with  its  time  of  setting  when  it  was  new  moon?  Ac- 
count for  this  change  in  time. 

15.  How  long  does  it  take  the  moon  to  get  into  the  "  dark  of 
the  moon"  ? 

1 6.  How  many  days  have  we  no  moon  ? 

17.  Watch  for  the  new  moon  again.  What  is  the  length 
of  the  moon's  cycle? 

18.  Foretell  the  moon's  phases  for  the  next  .month;  for 
three  months. 

19.  Explain  how  these  predictions  can  be  made  and  put  in 
almanacs  a  year  in  advance  and  come  true. 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  149 

LESSON.  XXV 
VEGETABLE  FIBERS 

1.  Recall  some  of  the  work  done  in  the  Third  Grade  on  the 
distribution  of  seeds.  What  agent  in  nature  scatters  most 
seeds  of  wild  plants? 

2.  How  do  wild  plants  secure  the  aid  of  the  wind  in  dis- 
tributing their  seeds? 

3.  Compare  the  seeds  of  the  dandelion,  the  milkweed, 
and  the  cotton  plant  in  this  respect.  Samples  of  all  these 
should  be  found  in  the  school  cabinet. 

4.  Describe  the  appendages  of  each  and  how  the  the  wind 
acts  upon  them  in  moving  the  seeds.  From  the  plant's 
point  of  view,  what  is  the  value  of  such  an  appendage  ? 

5.  Which  of  these  appendages  to  seeds  is  best  adapted  to 
man's  use  ?  Examine  carefully  the  structure  of  each  kind. 

6.  Do  you  think  the  fibers  on  the  cotton  seed  were  as  long 
and  fine  in  its  wild  state  as  they  are  now  in  the  kinds  that 
are  cultivated?  What  effect  has  cultivation  on  all  kinds  of 
plant  life? 

Note. — By  proper  cultivation  and  selection  of  seed  for  many  years, 
the  cotton  plant  has  changed  wonderfuHy.  The  fibers  are  now  longer, 
finer,  and  more  numerous  than  even  the  cultivated  varieties  were  a 
generation  ago. 

7.  Examine  samples  of  cotton  in  different  stages  of  growth. 

8.  Describe  the  cotton  plant  and  the  methods  used  in  its 
cultivation. 

A  few  cotton  seeds  should  be  planted  in  the  school  garden 
in  the  spring  and  their  growth  watched.  In  the  colder  states 
the  seeds  may  be  planted  in  pots  in  the  house  and  trans- 


150         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

planted  to  the  garden  when  the   danger  of  frosts   is   past. 

9.  How  is  the  cotton  separated  from  the  seed?  Compare 
modern  methods  with  those  used  a  generation  ago. 

10.  Give  an  account  of  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  and 
its  wonderful  effects  upon  the  cotton  industry. 

11.  Explain  its  action. 

12.  Visit  a  cotton  factory  and  observe  the  processes  of 
carding,  spinning,  and  weaving  the  product  of  this  wonderful 
plant. 

13.  How  many  bales  of  cotton  are  raised  a  year  in  the 
United  States?  Which  state  produces  the  most?  Which 
variety  is  best? 

14.  What  is  the  average  price  of  cotton  in  the  bale  ? 

15.  Who  buys  our  cotton?  Where  is  most  of  it  made  up? 
Why  is  it  not  manufactured  in  the  states  where  it  is  raised  ? 

16.  How  do  the  present  prices  of  cotton  cloth  compare 
with  those  before  the  cotton  gin  was  invented  ? 

17.  Card  and  spin  some  cotton  by  hand  and  weave  into 
simple  mats,  etc.  Notice  how  well  the  fibers  are  adapted 
to  the  many  uses  made  of  it  by  man. 

18.  What  other  plants  produce  useful  fibers  ?  Make  a  list  of 
them. 

19.  Describe  the  flax  plant.  Where  is  it  raised?  What 
part  of  the  plant  produces  the  fiber  ? 

20.  How  is  the  fiber  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  plant  ? 

21.  What  is  made  from  the  fiber  obtained  from  flax  ? 

22.  In  like  manner  tell  all  you  can  about  hemp,  jute,  agave, 
manila,  and  other  plants  that  yield  useful  fibers.  Tell 
where  each  is  raised;  describe  how  it  is  cultivated,  and  how 
the  fiber  is  obtained.  If  possible,  obtain  a  sample  of  each 
kind  of  fiber  and  tell  for  what  it  is  used. 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTI'R  WORK 


151 


23.  Which  most  nearly  resembles  cotton  when  manufac- 
tured ?  How  may  we  tell  cotton  cloth  from  linen  cloth  ? 

LESSON  XXVI 

ANIMAL  FIBERS 

1.  Mention  all  the  useful  animal  fibers  you  can  think  of. 
Make  a  list  of  them. 

2.  Bring  samples  of  each  to  the  class. 

3.  Examine  carefully  samples  of  hair,  wool,  fur,  bristles, 
silk,  etc.,  noting  the  color,  length,  and  texture  of  the  fibers 
and  learn  to  distinguish  each  by  its  appearance. 

4.  Examine  with  a  microscope  the  different  fibers  and 
describe  the  structure  of  each. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  animals  that  bear  hair;  another  of 
those  that  bear  wool;  and  a  third,  of  those  that  bear  fur. 

6.  How  do  these  classes  compare  in  size?  Can  you  see  an 
adaptation  in  the  size  of  animals  and  their  kind  of  covering  ? 

7.  Do  the  best  furs  come  from  large  or  small  animals  ? 

8.  How  are  the  various  animal  coverings  adapted  to  meet 
the  conditions  of  climate? 

9.  What  other  needs  of  animals  are  provided  for  in  their 
coverings  ? 

10.  In  what  ways  do  men  make  use  of  fibrous  animal 
coverings  ?  What  things  are  made  from  them  ? 

11.  Make  a  list  of  articles  made  from  hair;  from  wool; 
from  fur;  from  silk. 

12.  Describe  processes  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
various  animal  fibers.  If  possible,  visit  a  woolen  factory;  a 
silk  factory;  a  hat  factory. 


152  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

13.  What  animal  fibers  are  not  used  by  man  ? 

14.  What  animals  produce  a  fiber  for  their  nest  or  shelter  ? 

15.  For  what  purposes  do  many  spiders  produce  a  strong 
fiber?  Observe  the  many  uses  they  make  of  their  web  and 
find  out  how  it  is  produced. 

16.  Which  do  you  think  are  more  useful  to  man,  animal 
fibers  or  vegetable  fibers? 

LESSON  XXVII 

CHEMISTRY  OF  DYEING 

Experiment  i. — On  a  pane  of  glass  mix  together  some  iron  filings 
and  powdered  sulphur. 

1.  How  may  they  be  separated?  Does  their  difference  in 
weight  suggest  how  they  may  be  separated  ?  Would  a  magnet 
aid  us?  Separate  them. 

2.  Has  either  substance  undergone  any  change?  Define  a 

mixture. 

Experiment  2. — Pour  some  sulphuric  acid  over  some  iron  filings 
Heat  gently  until  the  filings  are  dissolved.  Pass  the  liquid  through 
filter  paper  and  evaporate  it. 

3.  What  change  have  the  filings  and  acid  undergone? 
The  crystals  produced  are  called  sulphate  of  iron  or  gree7i 

vitriol. 

Experiment  3. — Repeat  the  second  experiment,  using  bits  of  copper 
instead  of  iron  filings. 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  what  happened  in  the 
first  experiment  and  the  others  ? 

Crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper  or  blue  vitriol  will  be  formed. 
When  two  things  unite  so  as  to  form  a  new  substance,  dif- 
ferent from  either,  it  is  called  a  chemical  change. 


FIFTH  GRADE     WINTKR  WORK  163 

5.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  mixture  and  a  chemi- 
cal change  or  combination? 

6.  Mention  several  common  examples  of  chemical  changes. 

7.  How  is  "hard"  water  rendered  "soft"  by  using  lye 
or  soap  powder  ?  Account  for  the  dark  scum  that  is  formed. 

8.  How  is  soap  made  and  from  what  materials  ?  How  do  wc 
make  soda  water? 

9.  Account  for  the  milky  appearance  of  limewater  when  the 
breath  has  been  passed  through  it.     (See  Lesson  13). 

The  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  breath  unites  with  the  lime 
and  forms  small  particles  of  carbonate  of  lime  (chalk)  which 
float  in  the  water.     This  is  called  precipitate. 

Experiment  4. — Add  a  few  drops  of  ammonia  to  a  weak  solution  of 
blue  vitriol. 

10.  Account  for  the  deep  color  produced. 

Experiment  5. — Dip  a  rag  in  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol  and  let  it  dry; 
then  drop  it  into  a  solution  of  ammonia  and  dry  it  again. 

11.  Account  for  the  color  produced.  See  if  the  color  fades 
when  washed. 

12.  Add  water  to  the  dark  blue  solution,  Experiment  4. 
Little  change  is  produced.  Add  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric 
acid.     Why  is  it  turned  clear  ? 

When  a  colored  precipitate  is  formed  in  the  libers  of  cloth, 
we  say  it  is  dyed.  If  the  precipitate  will  not  dissolve  in  water, 
the  cloth  will  wash. 

13.  What  common  things  will  take  out  color  or  make 
things  fade? 

14.  What  common  things  stain  clothes? 

Note. — Many  different  colors  are  made  by  uniting  different  cliemicals. 
If  the  colors  are  pretty  and  durable  and  do  not  injure  the  cloth,  they 
may  be  used  as  dyes. 


154  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

LESSON  XXVIII 

THE  SHEEP  INDUSTRY 

1.  Describe  a  sheep.  What  do  you  know  of  its  disposi- 
tion? 

2.  What  are  its  chief  enemies?  What  means  of  defense  has 

it? 

* 

3.  Why  do  sheep  naturally  go  in  flocks?  How  do  they  act 
when  they  are  frightened?  Tell  what  you  know  of  their 
habits. 

4.  What  foods  do  they  eat?  How  does  this  influence  the 
profits  of  the  sheep  industry  ? 

5.  Which  eat  off  the  grass  closest,  sheep,  horses,  or  covn^s? 
Examine  their  teeth  and  notice  how  each  eats. 

6.  How  does  the  tramping  of  a  large  herd  of  sheep  affect 
the  grass  under  their  feet  ? 

7.  Visit  a  sheep  camp.  Describe  a  sheep  w^agon.  Tell 
what  you  know  about  a  sheep  herder's  life  and  labors. 

8.  Why  are  sheep  kept  out  of  national  forest  reserves  or 
allowed  to  graze  therein-  only  under  restrictions  ?  What  harm 
do  they  do  to  young  trees  ? 

9.  What  plants  do  they  eat  that  other  animals  will  not  eat 
and  that  would,  otherwise,  be  valueless  to  man  ? 

10.  What  states  produce  the  most  wool?  What  are  the 
natural  advantages  in  these  states  for  sheep  raising  ? 

11.  How  many  pounds  of  wool  will  an  average  sheep  pro- 
puce  each  year?  At  20  cents  a  pound,  what  will  a  fleece  be 
worth  ? 

12.  A  herd  carefully  cared  for  will  increase  in  numbers 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 


^^ 


what  per  cent  in  a  year  ?  Each 
ewe  sheep  has  one  lamb  and 
many  of  them  two  every  year. 

13.  If  it  costs  50  cents  a  head 
to  care  for  the  sheep  a  year, 
what  would  be  about  the  profit 
on  1 ,000  sheep  in  a  year  ? , 

14.  If  the  winter   is  a  hard 
one  and  the  sheep  have  to 
be  fed  hay,  how  will  this  affect 
the  profits  ? 

16.  When  are  the  sheep 
sheared?  Why? 

17.  If  the  weather  turns 
cold  just  after  shearing  the 
sheep,  what  loss  may  occur  ? 

18.  What  wild  animals 
often  kill  sheep? 

19.  What  diseases  afHict 
them  and  injure  the  wool  ? 

20.  Where  is  most  of  the 
wool  that  is  raised,  in  this 
country  manufactured? 


no 


Southdown  Ram 


Lincoln  Ram 


<-..-r 


American  Merino  Ram 


LESSON  XXIX 


THE  SHEEP  INDUSTRY  (Continued) 


I.  How  many  breeds  of  sheep  can  you  recognize?    Sfndx- 
the  different  varieties  at  the  state  fair  sheep  cxhil)il. 


156 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


Cheviot  Ram 


Hampshire-down  Ram 


Oxford-down  Ram 


Shropshire  Yearllng 


2.  Which  breeds  have  long  wool? 
Which  have  fine  wool?  Procure 
samples  of  as  many  kinds  of  wool 
as  you  can  for  use  in  school. 

Note. — The  different  breeds  of  sheep 
are  often  classified  by  the  fineness  and 
length  of  their  wool.  The  Merino,  the 
Delaine,  and  the  Ramboulette  are  fine- 
wooled  sheep,  while  the  Southdown, 
Shropshire,  Oxford,  and  Cheviot  have 
medium  wool.  The  Cotswold,  Lincoln, 
and  Leicester  are  long-wooled  sheep. 
All  these  kinds  of  wool  are  valuable 
for  the  different  fabrics  into  which  they 
are  made. 

3.  Are  sheep  raised  for  anything 
besides  wool? 

4.  Are  all  breeds  equally  good 
for  mutton  ?  Which  make  the  best 
mutton  ? 

5.  Is  the  wool  from  the  mutton 
sheep  as  valuable  as  that  from 
other  varieties? 

6.  What  is  needed  in  a  good 
mutton  sheep? 

7.  Where  are  most  of  our 
sheep  sold  and  converted  into 
mutton  ? 

8.  Describe  the  shipping  of 
sheep  over  a  railroad. 

9.  How  are  they  dressed  for 
market  ? 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTKR  WORK  157 

LESSON  XXX 

THE  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 

1 .  What  states  produce  most  cattle  ? 

2.  In  what  countries  of  the  world  is  stock  raising  an  im- 
portant occupation? 

3.  What  conditions  make  the  cattle  industry  profitable? 
Consider  climate,  vegetation,  ranges,  markets,  means  of 
transportation,  breeds  of  cattle,  etc. 

4.  Compare  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  raising 
stall-fed  and  range  cattle. 

5.  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  life  and  labors  of  the  modern 
"  cow-boy. "     What  care  should  cattle  receive  on  the  range  ? 

6.  Where  are  the  great  cattle  ranges  of  the  United  States  ? 

7.  What  breeds  of  cattle  are  most  profitable  to  raise  on  the 
range?  Why? 

8.  What  breeds  require  the  greater  care  of  the  farm  ?  Why  ? 

9.  Describe  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  breeds  men- 
tioned and  get  pictures  of  each.  Show  how  each  is  adapted 
to  the  life  it  leads. 

10.  To  what  dangers  are  cattle  subject  on  the  range? 
What  are  their  chief  enemies? 

11.  Why  do  some  states  pay  a  bounty  to  anyone  killing 
certain  wild  animals  ?  Name  some  of  these  wild  animals. 

12.  Why  are  cattle  often  dehorned  ? 

13.  Describe  a  stampede  of  cattle. 

14.  Do  cattle  ever  eat  poisonous  vegetation  and  get  sick 
or  die  from  its  effects  ? 

Note.— This  danger  was  so  great  in  early  pioneer  days  that  i-)CO|)Ie 
from  the  eastern  states,  moving  to  the  far  west,  were  accustomed  lo 


158         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

exchange  their  cattle  when  they  reached  the  borders  of  the  great  prairies 
for  others  that  were  acquainted  with  the  plants  there  and  therefore 
would  not  eat  the  poisonous  ones.  It  seems  that  by  experience  the 
cattle  learn  which  plants  to  shun. 

15.  Why  does  the  government  provide  inspectors  to 
examine  all  cattle  that  enter  or  leave  our  country  ? 

16.  Why  are  all  animals  that  are  used  for  food  carefully 
examined  at  the  stock  yards  before  being  killed  ? 

17.  What  is  the  most  profitable  age  to  sell  beef  cattle  ? 

18.  What  would  be  the  increase  of  an  average  herd  of 
cattle  each  year  ?  Which  increase  most  rapidly,  cattle,  sheep, 
or  horses  ?  Which  do  you  think  would  be  most  profitable  to 
raise?  Why? 

19.  Cattle  are  now  raised  chiefly  for  what  two  purposes? 
Why  are  oxen  no  longer  used  to  do  labor  for  man  ? 

20.  What  cities  are  the  chief  markets  in  our  country  for 
beef  catde  ?  Why  ? 

21.  Why  are  dairy  cattle  more  widely  distributed  among  the 
people  ? 

22.  Describe  the  shipping  of  cattle  from  the  range  to  the 
stock  yards  in  the  large  cities. 

23.  When  different  herds  of  cattle  feed  for  months  on  the 
same  range,  how  can  the  owners  separate  them  ? 

24.  Describe  a  "round  up"  of  catde.  Why  is  it  necessary 
to  "  round  them  up  "  occasionally  ? 

25.  Describe  the  branding  of  catde.  When  and  why  are 
the  cattle  and  horses  branded  ?  Describe  a  ''branding  iron." 

26.  Are  sheep  often  branded  with  a  hot  iron  ?  Why  ?  Sug- 
gest a  good  way  for  marking  sheep  without  causing  them  pain. 
Describe  how  the  ears  of  animals  may  be  cut  to  denote  owner- 
ship.    Draw  various  ears  marked  for  this  purpose. 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 


159 


4 


\y 


X.         -^fc^ 


Photo,  by  L.  C.  Snow 


Marking  Sheep  With  Paint 


27.  Doyouknowof  Other  ways  of  marking  animals?  ■ 

28.  Why  do  cattle-men  object  to  having  herds  of  sheep 
come  on  the  ranges  occupied  by  their  cattle  ? 

29.  Mention  plants  that  are  eaten  by  the  cattle  on  the 
ranges,  during  the  summer;  during  the  winter. 

30.  Do  herds  change  their  feeding  grounds  often  ?  Why  ? 

31.  During  what  season  is  the  feed  most  abundant  in  the 
mountains.     When  is  there  litde  to  be  had  there  ?  Why  ? 

32.  Compare  the  movements  of  herds  to  the  migration 
of  wild  animals. 

33.  How   may   a   severe   winter   affect   the   cattle   on   a 

range  ? 

34.  How  may  a  very  dry  summer  affect  the  cattle  in- 
dustry ? 

Note.— The  author  has  seen  the  plains  of  Texas  strewn  with  thr 
carcasses  of  cattle  that  died  of  hungerand  thirst,  duringa  severe  drought, 
creating  a  great  stench,  and  leaving  for  years  afterward  their  bleached 
bones  as  a  silent  witness  of  their  suffering  and  death. 


i6o 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GR.\DES 


LESSON   XXXI 


THE  DAIRY  COW 


1.  Cattle  are  raised,  chiefly,  for  what  two  purposes  ? 

2.  Describe  a  typical  dairy  cow. 

3.  Why  is  a  good  dairy  cow  rarely  fat  ? 

4.  Does  the  dairyman  wish  his  cow's  food  to  go  to  flesh? 

Why? 

5.  Why  should  the  dairy  cow's  udder  and  milk  veins  be 


A  Typical  Dairy  Cow 

large  ?  What  other  features  indicate  a  good  dairy  cow  ? 

Note. — A  good  dairy  cow  generally  has  a  wedge-shaped  body,  a 
small  head,  large  mouth,  and  a  large  stomach.  The  hip  bones  and 
tail  bones  are  prominent;  the  thighs  are  thin  and  poorly  fleshed.  The 
back  is  narrow  and  little  flesh  covers  the  shoulders,  while  the  neck  is 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  i6l 

long  and  slim.     Though  angular  in  features  and  rarely  fat,  the  dairy 
cow  is  often  pretty  and  some  breeds  are  even  graceful. 

6.  Would  such  a  cow  be  adapted  for  beef  ?  Why  not  ? 

7.  Why  are  most  of  those  features  desirable  in  a  dairy 
cow  ?  What  disposition  should  she  have  ?  Why  ? 

8.  Mention  several  good  breeds  of  dairy  cows. 

9.  Visit  a  dairy.  Notice  the  care  and  cleanliness  in  feeding 
and  milking  the  cows  and  in  handling  the  milk. 

10.  How  much  milk  will  a  good  cow  give  in  a  day  ?  During 
how  many  months  of  the  year  will  she  give  milk  ? 

Note. — The  Jersey  breed  is  one  of  the  best  for  dairy  purposes.  A  good 
Jersey  cow  will  produce  6,000  pounds  or  more  of  milk  in  a  year.  In 
exceptional  cases  cows  have  produced  several  times  that  amount. 

11.  If  it  costs  15  cents  a  day  to  keep  a  cow,  and  2  cents  a 
quart  to  deliver  the  milk,  what  is  the  profit  in  a  year  on  a  good 
dairy  cow  at  the  price  you  pay  for  milk,  if  a  quart  weighs 
2  pounds? 


LESSON  XXXII 

BEEF  CATTLE 

1.  What  are  the  chief  points  needed  in  beef  cattle  ? 

2.  Wherein  do  they  differ  from  dairy  breeds  ? 

3.  Do  good  beef  breeds  give  much  milk  ?  Why? 

4.  Learn  to  judge  the  points  of  excellence  in  both  types. 

What  breeds  can  you  recognize  at  sight  ? 

Note. — The  beef  type  generally  has  a  square,  heavy-set  body,  with 
much  flesh  on  the  backbone,  shoulders,  and  thighs.  It  is  more  hardy 
than  the  dairy  type  and  is  often  kept  in  great  herds  on  the  prairies 
throughout  the  year  at  small  cost. 


1 62  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

5.  Why  are  these  features  desirable  in  beef  cattle?  Are 
they  needed  in  dairy  cows? 

6.  Compare  the  expense  and  profits  of  raising  each  kind. 

7.  Name  several  good  breeds  of  beef  cattle. 

Note. — The  Galloway,  Shorthorn,  Angus,  and  Durham  are  favorite 
breeds  of  the  beef  type.  Compare  them  with  the  Jersey,  Guernsey, 
and  Holstein — examples  of  the  dairy  t>pe.  If  living  animals  cannot 
be  seen,  study  good  pictures. 

8.  In  what  states  are  most  beef  cattle  raised  ?  Why  ? 

9.  Why  are  dairy  cows  not  confined  to  certain  localities, 
but  found  in  all  the  states  ? 

10.  Is  it  profitable  to  raise  common,  or  scrub,  cattle  for 
either  purpose  ?  Why  not  ? 

11.  Where  do  the  excellent  breeds  mentioned  in  this 
lesson  come  from?  What  influence  will  care,  food,  and 
proper  selection  have  in  improving  breeds  of  cattle  ? 

Note. — The  best  breeds  have  come  from  the  wild  oxen  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  The  treatment  given  them  by  man  for  many  generations 
has  developed  from  those  inferior  animals  the  modern  excellent  breeds 
of  cattle. 

1 1 .  Give  a  description  of  a  cattle  ranch. 

12.  What  conditions  are  necessary  for  a  successful  ranch? 
Consider  the  value  of  the  land,  food  and  water  supply, 
climate,  market,  etc. 

14.  At  what  age  are  beef  catde  marketed  ?  Why? 

15.  What  is  the  average  price  paid  for  a  beef  steer  two  or 
three  years  old? 

16.  What  do  you  know  about  the  size  of  the  herds  of  beef 
cattle  and  the  cost  of  their  care  ? 

17.  Tell  what  you  can  about  how  the  beef  is  prepared  for 
market  at  the  stock  yards. 

18.  How  is  beef  shipped  on  land  ?  on  water? 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 


i<^>3 


Guernsey 


Ayrshire 


Jersey 


'mmmi 


Galloway 


Hereford 


Short  Horn 


1 64         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

19.  Why  is  each  quarter  labeled  with  the  beef  inspectors' 
certificate  ? 

20.  What  foreign  countries  buy  great  quantities  of  beef 
from  the  United  States?  Why  do  they  not  raise  what  they 
need  at  home? 

21.  Visit  a  meat  market  and  learn  the  names  and  prices 
of  the  different  cuts  of  beef;  and  from  what  part  of  the  body 
each  cut  is  taken. 

22.  What  cuts  are  roasted  ?  fried?  boiled?  stewed? 

23.  Which  are  costly?  Which  are  cheap?  Suggest  a 
reason  for  the  price  in  each  case. 

24.  How  is  meat  preserved  from  spoiling  for  shipping  or 
for  future  use  ?  Describe  methods  of  cold  storage;  of  canning, 
drying,  pickling,  etc. 

25.  Mention  all  the  useful  products  besides  meat  and  milk 
that  are  obtained  from  the  cow.  Make  a  list  of  them  and 
tell  all  you  know  about  the  manufacture  and  use  of  each. 

To  THE  Teacher. — A  number  of  lessons  may  be  given  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  following  products;  or  one  may  be  assigned  to  each 
pupil  to  study  and  to  report  to  the  class  all  he  can  find  out  about  it 
from  personal  observation,  from  inquiry  of  those  who  know  about  it,  or 
from  newspapers  or  books  in  the  library.  Consider  each  article,  its 
method  of  manufacture,  and  its  various  uses:  Hides,  horns,  tallow, 
hoofs,  hair,  glue,  gelatine,  neat's  foot  oil,  celluloid,  bones,  fertilizers, 
etc. 

LESSON  XXXIII 
RANGES  AND  THE  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

1.  In  what  part  of  the  United  States  are  the  great  ranges? 

2.  What  is  their  chief  use  to  man?  What  plants  grow  on 
them? 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  165 

3.  Which  of  these  plants  furnish  food  for  cattle,  horses,  and 
sheep  ? 

4.  What  plants  are  these  animals  liable  to  destroy  ? 

5.  What  are  forest  reserves,  or  national  forests  ? 

6.  What  is  the  object  of  the  government  in  taking  charge  of 
the  great  forest  regions  of  the  west  and  restricting  lumbering, 
grazing,  etc.  ? 

7.  How  is  grass  affected  by  over-grazing  ? 

Large  tracts  of  the  best  grazing  lands  have  been  made  as 
barren  as  a  desert  by  over-grazing. 

8.  How  does  the  eating  of  all  the  grass  influence  the 
growth  and  scattering  of  seeds  for  another  crop  ? 

9.  Why  is  there  little  or  no  grass  in  a  footpath?  What 
effect  will  the  tramping  of  the  feet  of  large  herds  have  upon 
the  growth  of  all  kinds  of  grass? 

10.  If  the  grass,  growing  in  the  midst  of  a  young  forest,  is 
eaten  off  too  closely,  what  harm  will  the  animals  do  to  the 
young  trees  if  allowed  to  remain  there? 

11.  In  what  way  is  a  grown  forest  sometimes  destroyed 
through  the  carelessness  of  herders  or  campers  ? 

12.  Tell  of  great  forest  fires  of  which  you  have  heard. 

How  do  you  think  such  fires  are  started? 

Note. — Large  forests  of  timber,  whose  value  could  hardly  be  told, 
have  been  burned,  through  leaving  a  camp  fire  smouldering,  or  by  drop- 
ping a  lighted  match  or  cigar  among  dry  leaves  or  grass.  Railroads, 
houses,  and  even  towns  in  or  near  these  forests  also  have  been  destroyed 
by  these  fires.  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota  particularly 
have  suffered  from  this  cause. 

13.  What  precautions  are  now  taken  to  prevent  forest  fires  ? 

14.  How  have  these  fires  influenced  the  supply  and  price 
of  lumber  in  the  United  States? 

15.  What  do  you  know  of  the  duties  of  forest  rangers? 


l66         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

1 6.  What  punishment  is  given  to  those  who  start  forest 
fires,  or  break  the  regulations  made  by  the  government  to 
prevent  them? 

17.  Will  over-grazing  do  any  damage  besides  killing  young 
trees  and  destroying  the  pasturage  ? 

18.  How  do  plants  influence  the  flow  of  water  down  the 
watersheds  that  supply  our  mountain  streams  and  rivers  ? 

19.  In  case  of  a  heavy  rainfall,  or  a  rapid  thaw  of  snow 
piled  away  in  the  mountains,  how  will  the  flow  down  a  naked 
slope  compare  with  that  of  one  down  a  slope  covered  with 
grass  and  leaves  and  shrubs  ? 

20.  In  which  case  would  a  destructive  result  be  most 
probable  ?  In  which  case  would  most  soil  be  washed  away  and 
silt  carried  down? 

2 1 .  What  damage  is  sometimes  done  by  floods  ? 

22.  What  damage  is  often  done  to  reservoirs  and  canals 
made  for  irrigation  by  the  silt  that  is  brought  into  them  in  the 
time  of  high  waters? 

23.  Can  you  think  of  any  other  reasons  why  grazing  on 
public  lands  should  be  properly  regulated  ? 

24.  Should  it  be  stopped  entirely?  What  would  be  the 
effect  upon  our  supply  of  beef,  wool,  and  other  products 
of  the  live  stock  industry  ? 

25.  Why  will  reasonable  grazing  do  little  harm  ? 

LESSON  XXXIV 

HUNTING  AND  TRAPPING 


I 


What  animals  are  hunted  for  sport  in  your  vicinity? 


2.  Are  any  hunted  because  they  are  harmful  to  man 


? 


FIFTH  GRADE— WTNTFR  WORK  1(^7 

3.  Name  the   principal   game  animals.     Make  a  list   of 

them. 

4.  Discuss  each  one,  considering  the  following  points: 
(a)  What  is  its  food?  (b)  When  and  where  does  it  rear  its 
young?  (c)  Is  its  flesh  good  for  food?  (d)  Is  it  harmful 
or  useful  to  man?  (e)  Is  it  numerous  or  scarce?  (f)  What 
are  its  habits  ?  (g)  How  is  it  killed  or  trapped  ?  (h)  Is  it 
a  good  thing  to  kill  such  animals  ? 

5.  Describe  methods  of  hunting  bears.  What  means  is 
commonly  used  to  kill  them?  What  are  the  bear's  methods 
of  defense?  What  is  the  food  of  the  bear?  Is  its  flesh  good 
for  food?  What  danger  is  there  in  hunting  these  animals? 
What  harm  do  they  do  ?  Ought  they  to  be  killed  ? 

6.  Consider  in  like  manner  how  to  hunt  the  deer,  wolf, 
fox,  rabbit,  goose,  turkey,  duck,  grouse,  quail,  and  other 
game  animals. 

7.  Describe  the  bow  and  arrow,  spear,  sling,  shotgun, 
rifle,  and  how  each  is  used  in  hunting  and  what  care  and  pre- 
cautions should  be  taken  in  its  use. 

8.  What  animals  are  often  secured  by  trapping  ? 

9.  Describe  traps  suitable  to  catch  mice,  rats,  beavers, 
wolves,  bears,  birds,  fishes,  etc.  Make  a  trap  to  catch  some 
animal  found  in  your  vicinity. 

10.  Consider  the  habits  of  the  animals  mentioned  and  how 
and  where  traps  are  set  to  catch  them. 

11.  Describe  snares  for  catching  birds.  What  birds  may 
be  caught  in  this  way  ?  Make  a  bird  snare. 

12.  Should  any  animal  be  killed  simply  for  sport  ?  ^ 

13.  What  evidence  do  animals  show  that  life  is  dear  to 
them  ? 


I 


4.  What  useful  animals  are  often  killed  "  just  for  fun  r 


P" 


1 68         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

15.  What  animals  have  almost  disappeared  because  of 
this  cruel  habit  of  man  ? 

16.  Why  are  there  game  laws  to  control  and  restrict  the 
killing  of  certain  animals? 

17.  Why  is  a  bounty  paid  for  killing  certain  animals? 
Mention  animals  that  are  protected  by  law,  and  some  that  the 
law  seeks  to  destroy.  Give  a  reason  for  the  provisions  of  the 
law  in  each  case. 

18.  What  do  you  know  about  old  time  methods  of  hunting 
and  trapping? 

LESSON  XXXV 
FISH  AND  FISHING 

1.  Mention  all  the  fishes  you  know  that  are  found  in  the 
local  streams.     Make  a  Hst  of  them.     Describe  each. 

2.  Which  of  these  are  native?  Have  any  of  them  been 
imported  and  placed  in  the  streams  ? 

3.  Visit  the  fish  market  and  learn  the  names  of  the  fishes 
offered  for  sale  and  where  they  come  from. 

4.  Which  come  from  the  ocean?  Which  from  rivers? 
Which  from  lakes? 

5.  Are  any  fish  found  in  Great  Salt  Lake  ?  Why  not  ? 

6.  What  foods  do  various  fishes  eat?  Tell  the  food  eaten 
by  each  kind  of  fish  named  on  your  list. 

7.  Are  all  kinds  of  fish  suitable  for  food?  Which  kinds  do 
you  prefer? 

8.  What  do  you  know  of  the  habits  of  fishes  ?  How  do  they 
get  their  food? 

9.  How  do  they  increase? 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK 


169 


Note. — If  possible,  visit  a  fish  hatchery  and  see  the  spawn  and  young 
fish  in  various  stages  of  growth.  In  a  natural  state  the  female  fish  will 
swim  up  stream  or  to  a  safe  quiet  place  and  there  deposit  her  eggs, 
usually  in  great  numbers.  She  then  goes  away  and  probably  will 
never  see  one  of  her  own  offspring.  When  the  young  is  first  hatched, 
it  is  kept  alive  on  the  extra  food  contained  in  the  egg  from  which  it 
came  until  it  grows  large  enough  to  hunt  food  for  itself. 

10.  Give  a  reason  for  the  shape  of  the  fish.     How  many 
fins  has  it?  Name  each  fin  and  tell  how  it  is  used. 

11.  How   do   fish   escape   from   their   enemies?  Are   any 
protected  by  their  color? 

12.  Did  you  ever  try  to  hold 
a  live  fish  in  your  hands? 
Why  is  it  so  slippery?  Of 
what  use  are  its  scales? 

13.  Tell  how  a  fish  swims. 
How  does  it  rise  or  sink  at 
will  in  the  water? 

14.  Mention  different 
methods  of  catching  fish. 
Describe  how  fish  are  caught 
with  a  hook  and  line.  What 
is  used  as  bait  ?  When  a  fish 
"bites,"  how  is  it  landed? 

15.  How  is  a  net  used  in 
catching  fish?  Describe  a 
seine  and  how  it  is  used. 

16.  Have  you  ever  been 
on  a  fishing  trip?  If  so,  de- 
scribe it. 

17.  Describe  a  fish  trap.      How  are  the   salmon  caught 
that  are  used  in  the  large  canneries  of  Columbia  River? 


i'ituiu.  i>\'    A.  <    .  ^tlOlU 

Trout  Fishing 


170         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

20.  Describe  the  great  cod  fisheries. 

21.  Are  any  kinds  of  fish  protected  by  law?  In  what 
way  ?  Why  ?  Tell  what  you  can  find  out  about  the  fish  laws 
of  your  state. 

22.  Should  dynamite  or  other  explosive  be  used  in  killing 
fish?  Why? 

23.  How  do  fish  breathe?  What  are  their  organs  of 
breathing  called? 

24  At  live  fish  shows,  why  is  a  stream  of  water  made  to 
flow  rapidly  into  the  fish  tank  ? 

25.  In  what  ways  are  fish  useful  to  man  ? 

26.  How  does  the  government  aid  in  keeping  our  streams 
and  lakes  supplied  with  the  best  kinds  of  fish  ? 

LESSON   XXXVI 
SHELLFISH 

1.  Obtain,  for  study,  samples  of  shellfish  such  as  the  clam, 
oyster,  crab,  lobster,  crawfish,  snails,  shrimp,  etc. 

2.  Which  of  the  samples  obtained  are  fit  for  food?  Which 
are  not? 

3.  Which  move  about?  How  do  they  move?  Which  cannot 
move  about? 

4.  Compare  their  different  coverings  as  to  shape,  hardness, 
size,  thickness,  color,  structure,  and  uses. 

5.  Which  shellfish  have  the  color  of  seaweeds?  of  sand? 
Why  ? 

6.  Which  have  the  hardest,  strongest  coverings  ?  Why  ? 

7.  Which  shells  are  made  up  of  two  parts?  How  are  they 
joined? 


FIFTH  GRADE— WINTER  WORK  171 

8.  Which  shellfish  live  in  salt  water?  Which  are  found  in 
fresh  water? 

9.  Tell  how  each  is  protected  from  its  enemies  ? 

10.  As  shellfish  increase  in  size,  which  cast  their  shell  and 
which  increase  the  size  of  their  shell  ? 

11.  Are  any  of  their  shells  used  by  man?  If  so,  for  what 
purpose  ? 

12.  What  kinds  of  shellfish  are  most  common  in  your 
vicinity  ?  What  can  you  say  of  their  numbers  ? 

13.  Are  any  of  them  harmful  to  man  ? 

14.  Which  are  cultivated  by  man  ? 

15.  What  food  do  they  eat  and  how  do  they  contrive  to 
get  it? 

16.  Make  a  special  study  of  the  oyster  and  give  an  account 
of  its  life's  history;  how  it  is  cultivated  by  man,  and  the  dif- 
ferent ways  in  which  it  is  used. 

17.  Collect  the  shells  of  as  many  shellfish  as  you  can  and 
group  them  into  classes  according  to  their  shape  and  structure. 

LESSON  XXXVII 
BUILDING  STONES 

1.  Mention  all  the  building  stones  that  you  know.  Bring 
to  school  samples  of  the  different  kinds. 

2.  Learn  to  recognize  them  at  sight;  where  they  arc 
obtained,  the  properties  that  make  them  valuable,  and  the 
different  uses  to  which  they  are  put. 

3.  Describe  sandstone.  Why  is  it  so  called?  Examine 
it  with  a  lens.  Where  is  it  obtained?  Is  it  easily  worked? 
Does  it  have  a  cleavage  that  makes  it  easy  to  split  into  regular 


172  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

shapes  ?  Will  it  receive  a  polish  ?  In  what  colors  is  it  found  ? 
Is  it  durable?  How  can  you  tell?  Mention  buildings  in 
which  sandstone  is  used.  What  parts  of  a  building  may  be 
made  of  sandstone? 

4.  Answer  similar  questions  about  other  common  stones 
used  in  buildings,  such  as  granite,  limestone,  marble,  onyx, 
etc. 

5.  Visit  a  stone  yard  and  learn  how  great  stones  are  cut  into 
smaller  ones  and  into  various  shapes,  and  how  they  are 
surfaced  and  polished. 

6.  If  possible,  visit  also  a  stone  quarry  and  see  how  great 
mountains  of  stone  are  split  into  large  blocks  to  be  shipped 
to  stone  yards  or  to  buildings  that  are  being  erected. 

7.  What  stones  are  used  chiefly  for  ornaments  ? 

8.  Name  such  as  will  receive  a  high  polish. 

9.  Which  owe  their  value  to  their  beautiful  markings  ? 

LESSON  XXXVIII 

PROPERTIES  OF  MINERALS 

To  THE  Teacher. — Throughout  the  year  the  pupils  should  be  en- 
couraged to  procure  samples  of  as  many  different  kinds  of  minerals  as 
possible;  these  should  be  preserved  in  a  suitable  cabinet.  Every  mineral 
taught  should  be  taught  with  the  aid  of  a  sample  of  it,  and  the  work 
suggested  here  should  be  modified  according  to  the  minerals  on  hand 
with  which  to  illustrate  it. 

1.  Name  at  sight  each  mineral  specimen  at  hand. 

2.  Put  into  groups  those  that  seem  to  resemble  each  other 
in  structure  and  looks. 

3.  What  is  one  of  the  first  qualities  we  think  of  as  be- 


FIFTH  GRADE— WrXTr:R   WORK  173 

Ionizing    to    minerals?  Whence    comes    the    common    com- 
parison  "  as  hard  as  a  rock  ?  " 

4.  Are  all  minerals  equally  hard  ?  Test  samples. 

5.  Arrange  the  samples  according  to  their  hardness. 
Which  is  the  hardest  sample  ?  Which  is  the  softest  ? 

6.  Mention  other  minerals  you  may  know  that  are  hard; 
that  are  soft. 

7.  How  should  each  of  these  be  classed  as  to,  its  degree 
of  hardness — chalk,  glass,  soapstone,  shale,  marble,  talc, 
limestone,  brimstone,  emery,  lead,  steel,  etc.? 

8.  Which  of  these  minerals  are  very  hard  ?  Which  are  very 
soft? 

Note. — Minerals  are  divided  into  ten  degrees  of  hardness,  the  diamond 
being  the  hardest.  Chalk  and  talc  can  be  scratched  easily  with  the  fin- 
ger nail  and  are  said  to  be  very  soft.  Five  degrees  of  hardness  will 
serve  our  purpose;  very  hard,  hard,  medium,  soft,  and  very  soft. 

9.  Classify  the  samples  into  these  five  groups,  as  best  you 
can. 

10.  What  difTerence  do  you  notice  in  the  weight  of  miner- 
als ?  What  minerals  are  very  heavy  ?  Which  are  light  ? 

11.  Arrange  the  samples  into  five  groups  according  to  their 
weight,  as  you  can  best  judge  them. 

12.  What  minerals  are  valuable  because  they  are  hard? 
because  they  are  soft  ?  because  they  are  heavy  ?  because  they 
are  hght? 

13.  Mention  minerals  that  are  black,  white,  blue,  gray. 
What  other  colors  are  seen  in  minerals  ? 

14.  What  use  is  made  of  colors  found  in  minerals  ? 

15.  What  paints  are  colored  with  mineral  pigments  ? 

16.  What  minerals  are  clear  or  transparent  ? 

1 7 .  Which  are  not  quite  clear  or  translucent  ? 


T74 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


1 8.  Which  are  opaque  and  allow  no  light  to  pass  through 

them? 

19.  What  property  gives  glass  its  chief  value?  Can  you 
think  of  other  minerals  that  are  valuable  because  of  their 
action  with  hght? 

20.  What  minerals  are  tough  ?  Which  are  brittle  ?  How  do 
these  properties  add  to  the  value  of  certain  minerals  ? 

21.  Which  can  be  hammered  into  thin  layers?  State  uses 
of  this  property? 

22.  Which  can  be  drawn  into  wire?  What  metals  are 
useful  on  this  account? 

23.  What  minerals  will  bend  and  spring  back  into  their 
former  position  ?  How  is  elasticity  useful  in  minerals  ? 

24.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  properties  of  minerals  that  you 
have  learned. 

LESSON   XXXIX 
ORES  AND  SMELTING 

1.  Collect  samples  of  ores'— iron,  lead,  copper,  silver,  gold, 
etc.  Examine  them  and  note  their  color,  weight,  and  general 
appearance. 

2.  Learn  to  tell  at  sight  the  probable  chief  metal  contained 
in  each  sample. 

3.  What  color  indicates  the  presence  of  iron  in  ore?  What 
color  indicates  copper  ?  lead  and  silver  ? 

4.  What  effect  has  great  heat  upon  many  common  minerals  ? 

5.  Have  you  seen  glass  melted  in  the  stove?  Where  do 
the  clinkers  found  in  the  furnace  grate  come  from  ? 

6.  What  stones  in  nature  show  the  action  of  fire  ?  Examine 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  175 

samples  of  lava,  porphyry,  pumice  stone,  etc.,  and  compare 
them  with  sandstone,  shale,  etc. 

Experiment  i. — Heat  a  small,  thin  piece  of  limestone  in  the  flame  of 
an  alcohol  lamp.     Note  the  change  produced  in  color,  structure,  etc. 

Experiment  2.— Pulverize  a  piece  of  galena;  mix  with  it  a  small  quan- 
tity of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  put  the  mixture  into  a  shallow  cavity 
in  a  piece  of  charcoal.  Melt  it  with  the  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp  and 
a  blow  pipe,  and  a  piece  of  lead  may  be  obtained. 

7.  How  are  ores  melted  on  a  large  scale  and  the  metals 
taken  out? 

8.  If  possible,  visit  a  foundry  and  see  how  iron  is  melted 
and  cast;  or,  better  still,  visit  a  smelter  where  ores  are 
melted  and  the  metals  are  separated  from  them. 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK 

LESSON   XL 

A  PROBLEM  IN  GARDENING 

To  THE  Teacher. — As  early  as  the  weather  will  permit,  have  the  pu- 
pils prepare  a  portion  of  the  school  garden  for  the  planting  of  radishes. 
A  good  problem  for  the  class  to  solve  is  how  to  raise  radishes  for  the 
market  most  profitably.     Consult  seed  catalogues. 

1.  What   are   the   chief   elements   for   success   in   raising 
radishes  for  the  market? 

2.  How  does  the  price  of  early  radishes  compare  with  that 
of  late  ones? 

3.  What  qualities  in  radishes  make  them  most  salable? 
Consider  size,  shape,  color,  flavor,  firmness,  etc. 


176 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


4.  Describe  the  varieties  of  radishes  that  you  know  about. 

5.  Does  one  variety  mature  more  quickly  than  another  ? 

6.  What  would  be  the  advantage  of  planting  a  variety  which 
matured  early? 

7.  What  seed  will  produce  the  greatest  crop  on  a  given 
amount  of  ground?  What  peculiarities  of  growth  will  pro- 
duce this  ?  Consider  size  of  root  and  size  of  leaves. 

Experiment. — To  determine  which  of  all  the  varieties  offered  for 
sale  is  best  for  the  early  market,  and  for  the  later  trade,  procure  seeds 
of  many  varieties  and  plant  them  in  parallel  rows,  marking  properly 
each  row.  One  end  of  each  row  may  be  planted  deep  and  the  other 
shallow.  About  three  weeks  later,  if  the  weather  is  favorable,  the 
lesson  may  be  resumed.     Consider  then  the  following  questions: 

8.  Which  variety  has  matured  in  the  shortest  time  ?  Which 
has  taken  the  longest  time? 

9.  Which  has  the  finest  flavor  ? 

10.  Which  takes  the  least  space  and  therefore  produces 
most  radishes  in  a  row^? 

11.  Which  variety  is  firm  and  crisp  and  which  is  pithy? 

12.  Which  has  the  most  attractive  shape  ?  color  ? 

13.  Which  variety  will  produce  most  crops  in  the  year  ? 

14.  What  radish  is  best  for  a  market  garden  ? 

15.  Keep  a  careful  record  of  each  variety  planted  and 
learn  its  good  and  bad  points.  If  possible,  put  this  knowl- 
edge to  account  by  raising  a  crop  for  market  or  home  use. 


LESSON  XLI 


CAUSES  OF  SEASONS 


I.  Point  to  where  the  sun  rises  now;    to  where  it  sets. 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  177 

2.  Where  did  it  rise  at  Christmas  time?  Where  did  it  set 
then  ? 

3.  By  pointing  with  the  finger,  trace  the  sun's  daily  path 
through  the  sky  in  September  when  school  began;  at  Christmas 
time;  at  the  present  time. 

4.  What  gradual  north  and  south  movement  has  the 
sun? 

5.  When  did  the  sun  reach  its  southern  limit?  When 
will  it  reach  its  northern  limit?  How  long  does  it  take  the 
sun  to  go  from  one  limit  to  the  other  ? 

6.  Compare  the  length  of  the  sun's  daily  path  through  the 
sky  in  the  winter  and  in  the  summer.  Compare  the  length 
of  days  in  these  two  seasons;  the  length  of  nights;  the  length 
of  the  noon  shadow. 

7.  Since  the  sun  stands  still  and  the  earth  revolves  on  its 
axis  and  in  an  orbit  around  the  sun,  what  must  be  the  condi- 
tions to  make  the  sun  seem  to  rise  and  set  daily  and  to  move 
north  and  south  during  the  year? 

8.  What  other  things  seem  to  move,  but  do  not?  Recall 
how  things  look  outside  when  you  are  in  a  car  moving  rapidly. 
When  on  a  boat  leaving  the  pier,  what  motion  does  the  pier 

seem  to  have? 

9.  In  what  direction  is  this  motion  always  as  compared 
with  your  real  motion?  What  is  its  rate  as  compared  with 
yours  ? 

10.  What  movement  of  ours  would  make  it  seem  to  us 
that  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  move  from  east  to  west  ? 

Experiment.— VdiSS  a  wire  through  the  center  of  an  apple,  an  orange, 
or  any  sphere  to  represent  the  earth,  and  revoh-e  it  in  the  sunshine. 
Imagine  the  people  to  be  as  small  accordingly  as  the  globe  is;  show  how 
sunrise  and  sunset  are  made  to  appear  to  them  as  the  sun's  motion. 


lyS  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

In  a  similar  way,  while  turning  it  rapidly  on  its  axis,  make  the  apple, 
pass  horizontally  around  a  globe  standing  on  the  desk  to  represent  the 
sun.  Let  the  axis  slant  in  one  direction,  so  as  to  make  the  sun  seem  to 
be  overhead  in  the  northern  hemisphere  at  one  place,  and  overhead  in 
the  southern  hemisphere  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  sun. 

Repeat  the  experiment  a  number  of  times  with  the  earth's  axis  in 
various  positions, — vertical,  horizontal,  and  at  different  angles,  and  tell 
what  effect  each  position  would  have  upon  the  distribution  of  light  and 
heat  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

11.  Show  by  the  experiment  what  would  be  the  effect  if 
the  north  pole  pointed  directly  toward  the  sun  all  the  time. 
What  would  be  the  condition  at  the  north  pole  ?  at  the  south 
pole?  at  the  equator  ? 

12.  If  the  axis  were  vertical,  how  would  it  affect  the 
seasons  ? 

13.  The  axis  always  points  toward  the  north  star  or  is 
bent  over  23^  degrees  from  the  perpendicular.  How  does 
this  give  us  four  seasons  in  this  country?  How  does  this 
divide  the  earth  into  zones? 

14.  Explain  the  apparent  movement  of  the  sun  northward 
and  southward  every  year. 


LESSON  XLII 
TRANSPORTATION— ITS  EVOLUTION 

1.  Why  do  we  need  to  move  things  from  one  place  to 
another  ? 

2.  What  do  we  use  in  doing  this  work  on  land?  over 
water?  over  snow? 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRINO  WORK  lyg 

3.  What  peoples  have  the  poorest  means  of  transporta- 
tion ?  Describe  how  the  Ihdians  move  their  things;  how  loads 
are  carried  in  China;  in  South  America. 

4.  What  animals  aid  man  in  carrying  burdens?  Make 
a  list  of  as  many  as  you  can  think  of  and  tell  how  each  does 
its  work.  Which  are  adapted  to  carry  loads  over  dangerous 
mountain  paths?  over  frozen  snows  of  the  north?  over  the 
hot  and  dry  desert?  in  the  temperate  climes?  Give  reasons 
in  each  case. 

5.  What  things  have  been  invented  to  aid  man  in  carrying 
loads  ? 

6.  What  things  have  been  invented  to  aid  animals  in 
moving  freight? 

7.  How  does  steam  aid  us  in  transportation  on  land?  on 

water  ? 

8.  What  other  powers  aid  man  in  this  labor  ? 

9.  Explain  how  each  of  the  following  vehicles  enables  man 
to  carry  more  freight  or  passengers;  the  litter,  the  wheel- 
barrow, the  cart,  the  wagon,  the  sled,  the  boat.  What 
advantages  has  each  to  make  work  easier? 

10.  What  peoples  have  only  trails  and  footpaths  on  which 
to  travel? 

1 1 .  How  do  good  roads  affect  transportation  ? 

12.  Tell  how  good  roads  are  made  and  paid  for.  Con- 
sider the  laying  out  of  roads,  the  grading,  turnpiking,  gravel- 
ing, and  paving  of  roads,  in  both  country  and  city. 

13.  Why  are  steel  roads  needed  for  cars?  How  are  they 
made? 

14.  Compare  modern  roads  and  means  of  transportation 
with  those  of  olden  times,  and  trace  the  steps  in  improving 
them. 


I  So  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

LESSON  XLIII 

TRANSPORTATION— THE  LEVER 

To  THE  Teacher. — The  simple  mechanical  powers  can  be  taught 
children  much  better  in  connection  with  devices  wherein  they  are 
used  than  in  an  abstract  way;  and  since  the  children  are  interested  in 
the  vehicles  of  transportation,  the  study  of  this  subject  will  serve  the 
double  purpose  of  teaching  a  most  important  human  activity  and  the 
first  principles  of  mechanics. 

Experiment. — Make  of  wood  a  small,  three-sided  prism  to  be  used  as 
a  pivot,  or  fulcrum;  and  a  thin,  smooth  strip  of  wood  for  a  lever,  which 
should  be  marked  off  in  inches.  A  common  ruler  or  yardstick  will  do. 
Balance  the  lever  over  the  fulcrum  and,  using  small  nails  or  flattened 
buckshot  for  weights,  work  out  the  following  problems: 

1.  When  equal  weights  are  placed  at  equal  distances  from 
the  fulcrum  and  on  opposite  sides  of  it,  how  does  the  lever 
act? 

2.  When  they  are  placed  at  unequal  distances  from  the 
fulcrum,  how  does  the  lever  act?  Which  end  rises?  Why? 

3.  If  unequal  weights  are  placed  at  equal  distances  from 
the  fulcrum,  how  does  the  lever  act  ?  Why  ? 

4.  Can  you  place  unequal  weights  where  they  will  balance 
each  other  on  the  lever?  Compare  the  difference  in  the 
weights  and  the  distances  from  the  fulcrum  and  see  if  there  is 
any  relation  between  them. 

5.  Where  will  one  weight,  six  inches  from  the  fulcrum, 
balance  two  similar  weights  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
fulcrum  ?  Where  will  it  balance  three  similar  weights  ? 

6.  Experiment  in  balancing  different  weights  at  different 
distances  until  a  relation,  or  law,  is  discovered  between  the 
weights  and  their  distances  from  the  fulcrum. 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  i8i 

7.  If  a  small  weight  is  to  balance  a  large  one,  what  must  be 
their  relative  distance  from  the  fulcrum  ? 

Note. — The  distance  from  the  fulcrum  to  either  weight  is  called  an 
arm  of  the  lever.  In  using  a  lever  to  do  work,  the  power  takes  the  place 
of  one  of  the  weights  and  its  distance  to  the  fulcrum  is  csilkdihe  power- 
arm.     The  other  arm  is  called  the  weight-arm. 

8.  Where  have  you  seen  levers  used  to  do  work  ?  Describe 
levers  and  the  work  that  you  have  seen  them  do. 

9.  How  much  weight  can  a  man  raise  with  a  lever  six  feet 
long  by  putting  one  end  of  it  under  a  heavy  stone  and  resting 
the  lever  over  a  fulcrum  one  foot  from  that  end  and  bearing 
down  150  pounds  at  the  other  end  ? 

10.  Find  all  the  levers  you  can  in  a  wheelbarrow;  a  cart;  a 
wagon. 

1 1 .  Find  the  fulcrum  in  each  case. 

12.  Explain  how  each  lever  found  is  an  advantage. 

13.  If  the  length  of  the  power-arm  be  increased,  what  etTect 
will  this  have  upon  the  amount  of  weight  it  can  lift?  If  it  be 
made  shorter,  what  will  be  the  effect  ? 

14.  If  the  weight-arm  be  shortened,  what  will  be  the  effect  ? 
If  it  be  made  longer,  what  will  be  the  result? 

To  THE  Teacher. — The  exact  law  of  equilibrium  of  the  lever  need 
not.  be  given  in  this  grade,  since  children  are  not  exact  in  thought  or 
action,  but  they  should  work  with  the  lever  and  weights  until  the  great 
principle  is  discovered.  When  they  can  grasp  and  use  it,  teach  tlicm 
that  the  Power  times  the  Power-arm  equals  the  Weight  times  the  Weight- 
arm. 

LESSON  XLIV 

TRANSPORTATION— THE  LEVER  (Continued) 

Experiment. — Balance  equal  weights  placed  on  the  lever  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  fulcrum.     Move  the  lever  up  and  down  and  measure  care- 


1 82 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


fully  the  vertical  distance  through  which  the  weights  move.     How  do 
they  compare  ?     Repeat  the  experiment  using  unequal  weights. 

1.  If  one  weight  14  inches  from  the  fulcrum  balances  two 
weights  7  inches  from  it  on  the  opposite  side,  through  how 
much  distance  will  the  latter  move  when  the  former  is  raised 
4  inches  ?  6  inches  ?  When  lowered  2  inches  ? 

2.  In  problem  9  in  the  last  lesson,  through  how  much 
space  will  the  power-arm  have  to  move  to  lift  the  stone  2 
inches  ? 

3.  When  unequal  weights,  balanced  on  the  lever,  are  made 
to  move  up  and  down,  which  weight  always  passes  through  the 
greater  distance,  the  lighter  or  the  heavier  ? 

4.  When  one  weight  balances  another  twice  as  heavy,  how 
does  the  distance  it  moves  compare  with  that  of  the 
ether  ? 

5.  When  it  is  three  times  as  heavy,  how  do  the  distances 
compare  ?  Find  the  results  by  testing  with  the  lever. 

6.  Continue  to  experiment  with  the  lever  and  weights 
until  the  relation  between  the  distance  covered  by  the  power 
and  weight  is  discovered  and  understood. 

7.  When  the  power-arm  is  longer  than  the  weight-arm,  what 
is  gained  by  using  the  lever  ?  What  is  lost  ?  Prove  it. 

8.  When  the  weight-arm  is  the  longer,  what  is  lost  ?  What 
is  gained  ?  Prove  it  by  using  the  lever  and  weights,  letting  one 
weight  represent  the  power. 

9.  How  does  this  relation,  or  law,  compare  with  the  one 
learned  in  the  last  lesson? 

10.  Tell  of  a  lever  you  have  seen  used  to  gain  power,  i.  e. 
where  a  litde  power  moved  a  great  weight  or  did  greater 
work. 

j.i.  Tell  of  a  lever  that  you  have  seen  used  to  gain  time,  i.  e. 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  183 

where  the  power  moved  through  only  a  small  distance  in 
making  the  weight  move  through  a  greater  distance. 

12.  In  using  a  wheelbarrow,  which  is  gained,   power   or 
time? 

13.  In  using  a  pitchfork,  which  moves  through  the  greater 
distance,  the  power  or  the  weight  ? 

14.  In  pressing  on  the  pedal  of  a  bicycle,  what  is  gained? 

15.  In  using  an  oar  in  moving  a  boat,  what  is  gained  ? 

16.  In  "setting"  the  brake  on  a  wagon,  is  power  or  time 
gained  ? 

17.  Think   of   other   levers    that   gain   pow^r.     Mention 
also  others  that  are  used  to  gain  time  at  the  loss  of  power. 

LESSON  XLV 

TRANSPORTATION— KINDS  OF  LEVERS 

1.  Is  the  fulcrum  in  all  levers  between  the  weight  and  the 
power  ?  Give  examples,  if  not. 

2.  Locate  the  fulcrum,  the  power,  and  the  weight-arm  in 
the  following  levers :  a  wheelbarrow^  a  pitch-fork,  a  pedal  of  a 
sewing  machine,  a  bicycle,  an  oar,  a  wagon  tongue,  a  carriage 
brake,  a  windlass,  a  capstan,  a  hammer,  in  drawing  a  nail,  in 
driving  a  nail,  a  crow-bar. 

A  lever  having  the  fulcrum  between  the  weight  and  power, 
like  the  one  you  have  been  using,  is  called  a  lever  of  the  first 

class. 

3.  Mention  several  levers  of  the  first  class.  What  is 
gained  by  levers  of  this  class?    Give  illustrations. 

When  the  fulcrum  is  at  one  end,  the  power  at  the  other,  and 


1 84 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


the  weight  is  between  them,  it  is  a  lever  of  the  second  class. 

4.  Name  several  levers  of  the  second  class.  What  is 
gained  by  levers  of  this  class? 

When  the  fulcrum  is  at  one  end,  the  weight  at  the  other, 
and  the  power  between  them,  it  is  a  lever  of  the  third  class. 


A  Lever  of  the  First  Class 


A  Le\^er  of  the  Second  Class 


A  Lever  of  the  Third  Class 


5.  Mention  several  examples  of  this  kind.  What  is  always 
gained  by  this  kind  of  lever  ? 

6.  What  kinds  of  levers  are  found  in  the  following  articles, 
and  what  is  gained  by  each— a  lemon  squeezer,  a  nut- 
cracker, a  spade  in  digging,  sheep  shears,  a  crank,  a  can 
opener,  a  tack  puller? 

7.  If  a  father  and  a  son  are  carrying  a  weight  of  100  pounds 
between  them  on  a  pole  4  feet  long,  where  should  the  weight 
hang  so  that  the  father  will  carry  75  pounds  ? 

8.  If  a  bar  of  bullion  weighing  200  pounds  is  placed  on  a 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  185 

wheelbarrow  i  foot  from  the  axle  of  the  wheel,  what  weight 
will  the  man  wheeling  it  have  to  lift,  if  the  handles  are  5  feet 
from  the  axle? 

9.  Mention  levers  found  about  carts,  wheelbarrows,  wag- 
ons, street  cars,  railroad  cars,  locomotives,  boats,  shipping, 
automobiles,  bicycles,  flying  machines,  etc. 

10.  In  each  case,  as  far  as  you  can,  tell  what  is  gained  and 
what  is  lost. 

LESSON  XLVI 

TRANSPORTATION-THE  WHEEL 

Experiment  i. — Try  to  roll  a  cube  and  a  ball  down  the  same  inclined 
plane.     Which  rolls  better?     Why? 

1.  Slowly  overturn  a  cube.  What  movement  do  all  the 
particles  in  it  have  to  pass  through  in  turning  over  ? 

2.  Which  takes  the  more  labor,  to  roll  a  box  of  goods  across 
the  floor  or  to  wheel  it  across  on  a  truck  ?  Why  ? 

3.  What  forms  are  more  easily  overturned  than  a  cube? 
What  forms  are  more  difficult  to  overturn  than  a  cube  ?  Ex- 
plain why  in  each  case. 

Experiment  2. — Overturn  a  book  lying  on  one  cover.  Overturn  a 
book  that  is  standing  on  its  end.  Which  takes  the  greater  labor  or 
force?  Why?  Overturn  a  cube  and  a  ball  of  about  the  same  weight. 
Compare  the  force  needed  in  each  case. 

4.  How  does  the  size  of  the  base  influence  the  force  needed 
to  overturn  an  object? 

5.  What  forms  are  most  stable?  Why?  What  forms  arc 
most  unstable?  Why? 

6.  Compare  a  wheel  with  a  ball  in  this  respect.  What  can 
you  say  of  the  size  of  the  base  of  each  ? 


1 86         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

7.  Why  are  wheels  placed  under  heavy  loads  that  are  to  be 

moved  ? 

8.  Why  should  wheels  so  used  be  perfectly  round?  If 
the  wheels  were  somewhat  flattened,  what  would  be  the 
effect  upon  the  amount  of  force  needed  to  pull  the  load  ?  Why  ? 
Besides  going  forward,  the  load  would  have  what  other 
motion  ? 

9.  Why  are  car  wheels  removed  as  soon  as  they  get  a 

''fiat"  side? 

10.  Why  was  the  invention  of  the  wheel  the  most  important 
step  in  the  advancement  of  transportation  ? 

11.  Why  does  a  stone  in  front  of  a  wheel  make  the  load  so 
much  harder  to  pull? 

12.  Why  should  roads  be  smooth  and  hard  ? 

13.  Why  do  steel  rails  reduce  the  power  needed  by  the 
locomotive? 

14.  Account  for  the  ease  of  motion  in  the  "ball"  bearings. 
Examine  how  a  ball  bearing  is  made. 


LESSON   XLVII 

TRANSPORTATION— THE  INCLINED  PLANE 

1.  Why  do  men  roll  a  heavy  barrel  up  a  plank  into  a  wagon 
rather  than  lift  it  up? 

2.  How  is  the  inclined  plane  an  advantage  ? 

3.  Give  several   illustrations  of  the  use  of  the  inclined 

plane. 

4.  What  effect  has  it  on  the  power  to  make  the  inclined 
plane  very  steep  ?  'to  make  it  very  gentle  in  its  slope  ? 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK 


.87 


5.  Would  you  rather  climb  a  steep  hill  or  one  with  a  gentle 
slope?  a  ladder  or  a  stair? 

6.  Why  do  paths  and  roads  seldom  go  straight  up  hill? 

7.  Why  are  railroads  in  mountainous  regions  so  crooked? 

8.  Why  can  a  man  on  foot  climb  certain  mountains  faster 
than  a  locomotive  can  ?  Which  could  go  through  the  greater 
distance  in  going  upward? 

Experiment. — Make  an  inclined  plane  of  two  small  boards  hinged 
together  at  one  end  and  separated  at  the  other  end  by  an  adjustable 
support.  Balance  a  small  wagon  by  a  weight  at  the  opposite  end  of  a 
string,  which  passes  over  a  pulley,  as  shown  in  the  cut. 


Place  any  given  weight  on  the  wagon  and  adjust  the  inclined  plane 
at  any  desired  angle.  Test  the  amount  of  power  needed  to  raise  the 
weight  by  adding  weights  to  the  lower  end  of  the  string.  Any  change 
in  the  angle  of  the  inclined  plane  will  cause  a  corresponding  change  in 
the  weights  needed  to  balance  the  wagon  and  its  load. 

9.  Explain  the  influence  of  the  slope  of  the  inclined  plane  to 
the  pow^r  needed,  and  to  the  distance  the  weight  is  raised. 


l88         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

Experiment  with  this  apparatus  or  with  similar  devices  un- 
til their  principle  is  understood. 

10.  If  the  power  used  is  not  great,  what  kind  of  an  in- 
clined plane  must  be  used  to  lift  a  great  weight  ?  While  thus 
gaining  power,  what  is  being  lost  ? 

11.  What  is  the  advantage  gained  by  using  the  inclined 

plane  ? 

Note. — The  wedge  is  a  double  inclined  plane  and  the  screw  is  an 
inclined  plane  running  spirally  around  an  axis.  Both  are  often  used 
to  exert  great  power. 

LESSON  XLVIII 

TRANSPORTATION— A  RAILROAD 

To  THE  Teacher. — Take  the  class  to  a  railroad  station  and  call 
the  pupils' attention  to  the  construction  and  adaptation  of  all  things 
used  there  in  transportation.  No  doubt  some  obliging  ofticial  or 
employee  will  gladly  go  with  you  and  make  needed  explanations. 
Examine  the  various  things  mentioned  in  the  lesson,  calling  especial 
attention  to  the  use  of  levers,  wheels,  inclined  planes,  light,  heat,  friction, 
momentum,  and  other  principles  of  physics,  that  the  pupils  may  be 
able  to  answer  the  questions  asked  in  the  lesson  and  others  that  you  may 
ask  them  after  the  visit.     Several  lessons  may  be  given  to  this  topic. 

1.  Cars. — Describe  a  common  box  car.  State  what  you 
can  of  its  size,  openings,  number  of  wheels,  brakes,  springs, 
couplings,  capacity,  uses,  etc.  In  like  manner  describe  a  coal 
car,  a  cattle  car,  a  refrigerator  car,  a  coach,  a  sleeping  car,  a 
dining  car,  etc.,  showing  their  adaptation  to  their  special  uses. 

By  means  of  pictures,  explain  the  improvements  that  have 
been  made  in  cars,  and  suggest  what  changes  may  yet  be 
made  for  their  betterment. 

2.  Trackage. — Explain  how  and  why  a  track  is  graded: 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK 


189 


Explain  cuts  and  fills;  the  use  of  the  ties;  the  weight  and 
strength  of  the  rails,  and  how  they  are  fastened  down.  De- 
scribe a  railroad  bridge;  a  tunnel;  the  working  of  a  switch; 
the  use  and  action  of  signals,  etc. 

3.  The  Locomotive. — Where  is  the  fire  box?  Tell  which  is 
the  boiler  and  how^  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  heat  is 
obtained.     Where   is   the  coal   supply?  the   water   supply? 


A  Locomotive  Drawing  a  Passenger  Train 


Which  are  the  drive  wheels?  Why  are  they  so  large?  Ex- 
plain the  use  and  action  of  the  bell,  the  whistle,  the  throttle- 
valve,  the  steam  chest,  the  cylinder,  the  eccentric  rods,  the 
pilot,  the  cab,  etc. 

4.  Find  in  the  things  mentioned  above,  'levers,  wheels,  pul- 
leys, inclined  planes,  and  applications  of  other  things  that  you 

have  studied. 

5.  Buildings.— DQ?>Q.x\hii  and  show  the  need  of  a  waiting 


I  go 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


room,  ticket  office,  telegraph  office,  bureau  of  information, 
baggage  rooms,  and  freight  houses. 

6.  Employees.  Explain  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of 
the  engineer,  fireman,  conductor,  brakeman,  porter,  yard 
master,  train  dispatcher,  ticket  agent,  freight  agent,  manager, 

etc. 

7.  At  what  rate  of  speed  do  passenger  trains  run?  freight 

trains  ? 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  dangers  of  railroad  transportation  ? 

9.  What  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  accidents  ? 

LESSON  XLIX 
OUR  GREAT  RAILROADS 

1.  Mention  some  of  the  most  important  railroads  in  the 
United  States. 

2.  Where  are  they  located?  Why  do  many  of  them  follow 
rivers  ?  Do  many  of  them  cross  mountains  ? 

3.  What  has  made  them  important?  Are  there  natural 
conditions  that  aid  them? 

4.  How  may  one  go  from  New  York  City  to  Chicago  ?  Over 
what  roads  may  he  go  from  Chicago  to  Omaha  ?  from  Chicago 
to  Kansas  City?  Study  a  good  railroad  map  of  the  United 

States. 

5.  Describe  three  routes  of  crossing  the  continent  by  rail. 

6.  Which  line  first  crossed  the  continent?  Why  did  the 
government  aid  it? 

7.  Mention  the  most  important  benefit  of  railroads  to  the 
individual,  the  town,  the  state,  the  nation.  Are  railroads  in 
any  way  a  detriment? 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  191 

8.  Where   are   the   great   lumber   regions  of  the   United 

States  ? 

9.  Locate  the  wheat  belt,  the  corn  belt;  the  cotton  belt,  the 
coal  regions.  Where  is  most  manufacturing  done?  What 
states  are  most  populous? 

10.  How  do  these  things  influence  the  building  of  railroads  ? 

11.  In  what  part  of  our  country' are  there  no  railroads? 

Why? 

12.  Why  were  large  cities  formerly  built  near  the  ocean? 
Is  this  equally  true  now  ?  Why  ? 

13.  Where  are  railroads  needed  now?  What  conditions 
must  exist  to  get  men  to  build  railroads  ? 

14.  How  may  the  discovery  of  rich  mines  of  gold  or  silver 
influence  the  building  of  railroads?  Can  you  give  an  example 

of  this? 

15.  Since  the  war  with  Spain,  why  are  great  companies 

building  lines  to  the  Pacific  Coast? 

LESSON   L 

PLANT  PROPAGATION— GERMINATION 

Experiment. — Plant  a  variety  of  seeds  in  damp  sawdust  and  watch 
them  germinate  and  grow,  noting  carefully  each  step  in  their  develop- 
ment. 

1.  What  is  the  most  common  way  of  getting  new  plants? 

2.  Make  a  list  of  plants  you  know  that  grow  from  seeds. 
Which  live  only  one  year  ?  Which  live  many  years  ? 

3.  What  are  the  conditions  necessary  for  plants  to  grow 
from  seeds  and  mature?  Recall  the  work  done  on  Germina- 
tion (See  Book  I,  page  113). 


192 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


4.  Prove  that  moisture  is  necessary  to  germination.  What 
care  is  taken  of  stored  wheat,  corn,  and  other  grains  to  keep 
them  from  sprouting? 

Wheat  stored  in  the  dry  climate  of  Egypt  has  kept  2,000 
years  in  good  condition. 

5.  Prove  that  warmth  is  necessary  to  germination.  Why 
do  seeds,  planted  too  early  in  the  spring,  sometimes  rot  in  the 
ground  ?  What  kinds  may  be  planted  earliest  ? 

6.  Why  will  a  late  damp  spring  or  an  early  dry  one  cause 
a  poor  crop? 

7.  Do  germinating  seeds  require  air  ? 

Experiment. — Drop  some  beans,  wheat,  or  other  common  seeds  into 
a  bottle  of  water  and  set  the  bottle  in  a  warm  window  for  a  week  or  more. 
Compare  the  results  with  seeds  sovv^n  in  moist  sawdust  or  dirt. 

8.  How  does  air  get  mixed  with  soil?  When  the  water  in 
damp  soil  evaporates,  what  takes  its  place  ? 

9.  Do  crops  usually  thrive  in  soil  that  is  always  very  damp  ? 
Why  ?  Give  examples  that  you  have  seen. 

10.  Why  is  it  a  good  thing  for  plants  that  rain  is  not 
continuous,  keeping  the  ground  wet  all  the  time  ? 

11.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  when  there  is  too  much 
moisture,  sandy  or  clayey  soil  ?  Why  ? 

12.  Describe  each  change  that  takes  place  in  most  seeds 
as  they  germinate  and  grow,  and  account  for  it. 

LESSON   LI 
PLANT  PROPAGATION— CUTTINGS 

Experiment  i. — Cut  a  slip  from  a  geranium,  a  coleus,  a  carnation,  a 
poplar,  a  currant,  a  willow,  a  rose,  a  privet,  a  grape,  an  oleander,  or 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  193 

from  any  other  common  plant,  and  set  them  out  in  good  moist  soil. 
Keep  the  soil  in  good  condition  and  watch  and  record  what  takes  place 
with  the  slips. 

If  the  woody  slips  are  too  old,  they  may  not  grow.  This  may  be  told 
by  their  looks,  and  by  giving  them  a  quick  bend.  If  they  do  not  break, 
they  may  be  too  young:  if  they  are  brittle  and  splinter,  they  may  be  loo 
old:  but  if  they  break  and  hang  by  the  bark,  they  are  in  projtr  con- 
dition. 

Cuttings  having  buds  should  be  three  or  four  inches  long  and  be  plan- 
ted so  as  to  leave  at  least  one  bud  above  the  ground,  and  two  beneath 
the  surface.  Those  having  joints,  as  the  carnation,  should  be  planted 
so  as  to  have  at  least  two  joints  below  the  surface.  If  the  cuttings  have 
leaves,  pull  most  of  them  off.     Why? 

1.  Which  of  the  cuttings  sprout  first?  which  are  slowest? 

2.  Which  cuttings  will  not  grow  in  this  way  at  all  ? 

3.  What  plants  are  commonly  grown  from  cuttings  ? 

4.  Would  these  plants  grow  as  well  from  seeds?  Will 
they  mature  and  bear  flowers  or  fruit  as  soon  from  the  seed  as 
from  the  cuttings? 

Experiment  2.— Take  some  leaves  of  a  cactus  or  rex  begonia  and  cover 
them  partly  with  damp  soil— especially  the  part  where  the  leaf  is  broken 
off.     Note  what  takes  place.     Try  leaves  of  many  kinds. 

5.  What  plants  may  be  propagated   from  their  leaves? 

6.  Is  this  method  ever  used  in  the  garden  or  green- 
house ? 

7.  Does  nature  ever  produce  new  plants  from  leaves  ? 

8.  Do  such  plants  as  grow  from  leaves  generally  produce 
seeds  ? 

Experiment  3.— Completely  cover  with  good  soil  some  potato  eyes; 
some  onion  sets;  a  few  roots  of  raspberry,  blackberry,  and  asparagus 
plants.  Keep  them  in  favorable  conditions  and  note  any  changes  that 
they  undergo. 

9.  What  plants  send  up  sprouts  from  their  roots  ? 


194         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

10.  Do  any  of  them  depend  upon  this  method  alone  to 
produce  new  plants? 

1 1 .  Man  uses  this  method  with  what  plants  ?  Why  ? 

Experiment  4. — Select  a  long,  slender,  branch  of  a  Virginia  creeper, 
grapevine,  rosebush  or  other  common  shrub  growing  near  the  school, 
and  bend  it  down  to  the  ground  and  carefully  cover  a  section  of  it 
with  three  or  four  inches  of  soil.  Leave  a  foot  or  more  of  the  end  of 
the  branch  above  the  ground  and  do  not  cut  the  branch  from  the  parent 
plant. 

12.  What  takes  place  at  the  buried  portion?  When  may 
the  branch  be  cut  from  the  parent  stem  without  killing  the  new 
plant? 

13.  This  method  of  layering  has  what  advantage  over 
simply  putting  slips  or  cuttings  in  the  ground  to  grow  ?  Why  ? 

14.  What  plants  have  you  seen  produced  by  layering  them  ? 

15.  Observe  all  common  wild  plants  and  find  out  how  each 
one  produces  its  new  plants. 

16.  Make  a  list  of  plants  that  follow  each  method  observed, 
and  find  out  which  method  is  most  common  and  which  is 
most  rare. 

1 7.  Are  there  still  other  ways  of  growing  new  plants  ? 

Experiment  5. — Many  cuttings  will  grow  if  simply  placed  in  a  bottle 
of  water,  in  which  case  the  roots  may  be  plainly  seen  as  they  develop. 
When  they  become  large  enough  to  sustain  the  plants,  they  may  be  trans- 
planted into  pots  or  into  the  school  garden.  Obtain  in  this  way  some 
flowering  plants  for  the  school. 

LESSON   LII 

PLANT  PROPAGATION— BUDDING 

Field  Lesson. — Visit  a  nursery  and  see  how  young  trees  are  produced, 
cared  for,  and  transplanted  into  orchards. 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  195 

1 .  What  fruit  trees  are  grown  from  seeds  ? 

2.  What  trees  and  shrubs  are  grown  from  cuttings?  Hav- 
you  ever  seen  green  fence  posts,  set  in  moist  soil,  grow  into 
trees  ? 

3.  Can  you  recognize  the  different  varieties  of  young  trees 
in  a  nursery  as  readily  as  when  they  are  older  ? 

4.  Name  and  describe  the  fruit  trees  that  you  readily 
recognize. 

5.  Can  an  orchardist,  in  buying  young  trees,  always  tell 
whether  they  are  the  particular  variety  he  wants  or  not? 
Why  is  it  necessary  that  he  should  be  sure  what  variety  of 
fruit  each  tree  will  produce  ? 

6.  Do  trees  grown  from  seeds  generally  produce  the  same 
variety  as  the  seeds  planted  ?  Why  ? 

7.  Are  the  trees  and  shrubs  grown  from  cuttings  always 
of  the  same  variety  as  the  cuttings  used  ? 

8.  What  does  the  nurseryman  do  to  make  sure  that  the 
fruit  of  any  given  tree  will  be  the  desired  kind  ? 

Note. — The  variety  is  determined  by  the  bud  rather  than  by  the  root 
or  stem.  The  nurseryman,  therefore,  takes  buds  from  an  old  tree, 
whose  variety  is  known,  and  "buds"  or  "grafts"  into  the  seedling  tree. 
"Budding"  is  usually  done  when  the  seedling  is  only  a  year  old,  but 
grafting  may  be  done  at  almost  any  age. 

9.  What  is  the  chief  thing  to  secure  the  growth  of  the  bud  in 
its  new  home  ?  Why  must  the  sap  of  the  young  twig  be  made 
to  circulate  in  the  new  bud  ? 

10.  When  the  new  bud  begins  to  grow,  how  may  its  growth 

be  forced? 

11.  Why,  in  the  nursery,  are  the  young  trees  budded  so 

near  the  ground?  , 

12.  What  two  advantages  arc  secured  by  culling  off  ihc 


196 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


('  h. 


'U 


Steps  in  Budding 


young  tree  just  above 
the  new  bud  as  soon 
as  the  latter  is  big 
enough  ? 

Experiment. — Although 
in  the  temperate  zone, 
August  is,  perhaps,  the 
best  month  to  bud  young 
trees,  yet  with  care  the 
young  buds  may  be  made 
to  grow  early  in  the  spring 
while  the  sap  is  flowing 
freely.  Bring  twigs  to  the 
class  and  practice  in  cut- 
ting and  placing  buds  of 
any  kind  until  you  are 
familiar  with  the  process. 
Then  bud  young  twigs  of 
any  tree  that  may  be  grow- 
ing near  the  school,  using 
buds  of  some  other  variety 
of  the  same  tree. 

13.  How  are  straw- 
berries propagated  ? 

14.  H  o  w  does 
spearmint  reproduce 
itself? 

15.  Describe  how 
the   successive    crops 


(a)   twig  having  suitable  buds  to  use;  (b)  method  of  cut-  of    alfalfa    grOW. 
ting   off  the  bud;  (c)  how  the   bark   is   cut;    (d)    how   the  ^      tt  i  J 

bark  is  opened;  (e)  inserting  the  bud;  (/)  the  bud  in  place;         i5.    HOW   lOng   QOeS 
ig)  the  bud  properly  wrapped. 

the  banana  tree  live 
and  how  does  it  produce  young  plants? 

17.  What  plants  may  be  reproduced  in  more  ways  than 
one  ?  Make  a  list  of  all  that  you  know. 


FIFTH  GRADK— SPRING  WORK 


197 


18.  How  may  several  kinds  of  fruit  or  llowcrs  be  made  to 
grow  on  the  same  plant? 

LESSON   LIII 
GRAFTING 


4 


1,11 


I.  In  spite  of  all  the  care  of  the  nurserymen  in  budding  the 
young  trees,  in  almost  every  large  orchard  there  will  be  a  few 

trees  that,  when  ma- 
ture, will  not  bear 
fruit  true  to  name. 
What  remedy  can  you 
think  of  for  this  con- 
dition ? 

2.  Why  not  dig  up 
the  old  trees  and 
plant  young  ones  of 
the  desired  kind  in 
their  places  ? 

3.  Now  that  the 
bark  is  too  thick  and 

hard  to  "bud"  the  old  trees,  can  you  think  of  any  other  way 
in  which  the  sap  of  the  tree  may  be  made  to  mingle  with 
the  sap  of  a  twig  of  another  tree  that  bears  buds  of  the 
variety  desired? 

Experiment.— Saw  off  a  limb  of  a  tree  and  split  the  stump  down  the 
center,  making  a  crack  about  three  inches  long(6).  Cut  two  scions,  each 
having  several  buds  and  trim  one  end  of  each  into  the  shape  of  a  long, 
slim  wedge  (a).  Insert  these  into  the  crack  in  such  a  position  (b)  that 
the  sap  layer  of  each  scion  shall  coincide  with  the  sap  layers  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  stump   (d),  so  as  to  secure  a  circulation  of  sap  between 


f)'!l 


Steps  dj  Tongue  Grafting 

(a)  the   two   branches   to  be  joined;    (b)  a  tongue  cut  in 
each;    (c)    how  fitted  together;  {d)  method  of  wrapping. 


98 


NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 


them.  The  severed  ends  of  both  the  stump  and  the  scions  should 
then*  be  covered  with  grafting  wax  (c)  to  prevent  their  drying  before 
growth  is  established. 


Steps  in  Cleft  Grafting 

4.  What  is  the  great  advantage  of  grafting  ? 

5.  Why  do  grafts  grow  more  rapidly  than  twigs  on  other 
branches  of  the  same  tree  ?  than  seedlings  ? 

6.  When  the  grafts  are  large  enough,  why  should  the  other 
limbs  be  sawed  off? 

Note. — Usually  in  grafting,  scions  are  inserted  into  more  than  one 
limb,  and  on  different  sides  of  the  tree  in  order  that  the  tree  may  be  well 
balanced  when  the  scions  grow  and  the  other  limbs  are  cut  off. 

LESSON  LIV 
CHIEF  CROPS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


To  THE  Teacher. — In  teaching  the  influences  of  physical  conditions 
upon  crops  and  their  consequent  distribution,  the  work  should  corre- 
late closely  with  geography,     A  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  plants  and 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  199 

of  the  climate  and  conditions  that  they  recjuire  will  aid  the  jnipils  greatly 
in  remembering  where  various  ones  are  found;  if,  at  the  same  time,  they 
are  taught  the  influence  of  position  and  surface  conditions  that  determine 
climate,  etc. 

1.  Mention  plants  that  need  much  water.  Make  a  list  of 
these. 

2.  Name  some  desert  or  arid  region  plants. 

3.  Compare  in  a  general  way  their  size,  growth,  appearance, 
etc. 

4.  What  plants  require  long,  warm,  summers  to  develop 

them  ? 

5.  What  plants  will  develop  in  a  short,  cool  summer  ? 

6.  How  long  does  it  take  wheat  to  mature  ?  corn  ?  sugar 
cane  ?  cotton  ?  How  does  this  influence  their  ]jlace  of  greatest 
growth  ? 

Note. — A  little  flower  growing  near  the  snow  line  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  will  sprout,  blossom,  develop,  seed  and  scatter  the  seed, 
wither  up,,  and  die  within  the  short  space  of  six  weeks,  its  summer. 
In  the  tropics,  plants  of  similar  size  take  almost  a  year  to  do  this  work. 

7.  What  plants  thrive  best  in    sandy  soil?   clayey  soil? 

8.  What  kind  of  soil  do  most  plants  seem  to  like  best  ? 

9.  What  parts  of  the  United  States  are  warm  and  moist? 
What  crops  thrive  best  there  ? 

10.  What  parts  are  dry  and  hot?  What  crops  grow  there? 

11.  What  conditions  of  climate  and  soil  do  the  following 
important  crops  require:  wheat,  corn,  cotton,  sugar,  cane, 
tobacco,  rice,  cranberries,  apples,  grapes,  etc.  ? 

12.  Where,  in  the  United  States,  does  each  of  these  crops 

thrive  best  and  why  ? 

13.  Where,    in  .the   United    States,    are   oranges   raised? 

Why? 


200         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

14.  What  fruits  are  raised  in  the  north  ?  Why  ? 

15.  What  influence  does  weather  have  upon  crops  in  any 
locality  ?  If  the  spring  is  late  and  cold  and  damp,  how  will 
it  affect  the  crops  ?  If  it  is  early  and  hot  and  dry,  what  effect 
will  it  have  upon  them  ? 

16.  Where  is  sandy  soil  most  frequently  found?  Where  do 
we  find  gravel  ?  clay  ? 

17.  Tell  if  the  soil  influences  plant  growth  in  any  degree. 

r 

LESSON  LV 

PLANT  STRUGGLES— WIND 

Note. — One  of  the  most  interesting  and  instructive  things  to  study 
is  the  behavior  of  plants  when  placed  in  unfavorable  and  dangerous 
conditions.  The  efforts  that  they  put  forth  to  save  themselves  from 
destruction  are  often  ingenious  and  sometimes  almost  pathetic.  These 
struggles  can  be  seen  almost  any  time  and  anywhere  among  plants. 
Some  of  their  enemies  may  be  only  accidental  or  special,  while  others 
are  permanent,  and  their  means  of  protection  will  be  special  or  perma- 
nent to  correspond.  Study  the  behavior  of  plants  under  different  cir- 
cumstances and  learn  to  explain  what  you  see. 

1.  What  great  good  is  done  the  plant  by  the  wind?  Recall 
the  work  of  the  wind  in  scattering  the  seeds  of  plants. 

2.  What  habits  have  plants  that  are  calculated  to  make 
the  wind  serve  them? 

3.  If  winds  are  too  strong,  what  harm  do  they  often  do  to 
plants?  Tell  of  trees  and  fruit,  hay  and  grain,  etc.,  that  you 
have  seen  injured  by  the  wind. 

4:  How  do  trees  guard  against  being  uprooted  ? 
5.  Is  it  an  advantage  that  the  tall  poplar  tree  bends  before 
a  strong  wind?  Why? 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  20i 

6.  If  the  wind  blows  strongly  and  from  the  same  direction, 
what  will  be  its  effect  upon  the  shape  of  trees  ?  Do  you  know 
of  any  trees  whose  shape  has  been  changed  by  the  wind  ? 
Can  they  withstand  the  force  of  the  wind  now  better  than 
before  their  shape  had  changed? 

7.  How  are  orchards  and  forests  often  injured  by  strong 
winds  or  hurricanes? 

8.  Describe  the  structure  of  trees  as  adapted  to  withstand 
the  force  of  the  wind.  Consider  the  shape  and  size  of  the 
trunk,  the  arrangement  of  the  branches,  the  strength  of  the 
roots,  etc.,  and  any  special  provision  you  may  have  seen. 


ODE  TO  THE  WEST  WIND 


O  wild  West  Wind,  thou  breath  of  Autumn's  being, 
Thou,  from  whose  unseen  presence  the  leaves  dead 
Are  driven,  like  ghosts  from  an  enchanter  fleeing. 

Yellow,  and  black,  and  pale,  and  hectic  red, 
Pestilence-stricken  multitudes:  O  thou. 
Who  chariotest  to  their  dark  wintry  bed 

The  winged  seeds,  where  they  lie  cold  and  low, 
Each  like  a  corpse  within  its  grave,  until 
Thine  azure  sister  of  the  spring  shall  blow 

Her  clarion  o'er  the  dreaming  earth,  and  fill 
(Driving  sweet  buds  like  flocks  to  feed  in  air) 
With  living  hues  and  odors  plain  and  hill: 

Wild  Spirit,  which  art  moving  everywhere: 
Destroyer  and  preserver;  hear,  Oh  hear! 


202  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

II 

Thou  on  whose  stream,  mid  the  steep  sky's  commotion, 
Loose  clouds  like  earth's  decapng  leaves    are  shed, 
Shook  from  the  tangled  boughs  of  Heaven  and  Ocean, 

Angels  of  rain  and  lightning:  there  are  spread 
On  the  blue  surface  of  thine  airy  surge, 
Like  the  bright  hair  uplifted  from  the  head 

Of  some  fierce  Maenad,  even  from  the  dim  verge 

Of  the  horizon  to  the  zenith's  height. 

The  locks  of  the  approaching  storm.     Thou  dirge 

Of  the  dying  year,  to  which  this  closing  night 
Will  be  the  dome  of  a  vast  sepulchre, 
Veiled  with  all  thy  congregated  might 

Of  vapors,  from  whose  solid  atmosphere 

Black  rain,  and  fire,  and  hail  will  burst:  Oh  hear! 

— Shelley. 

LESSON  LVI 
PLANT  STRUGGLES— DROUGHT 

A  Field  Lesson. — After  the  spring  rains  have  ceased  and  the  dry, 
hot,  weather  begins,  study  any  nearby  patch  of  weeds  and  note  how 
they  act  as  their  supply  of  moisture  grows  less. 

1 .  Count  the  number  of  weeds  growdng  on  a  square  yard. 

2.  Note  which  are  large  and  thrifty  and  which  are  small 
and  weakly.  Account  for  these  differences  as  far  as  you 
can. 

3.  Compare  these  weeds  with  others  near  by  and  account 
for  any  marked  difference  between  them. 

4.  What  are  the  first  signs  of  suffering  for  water  ? 


FIFTH  GRADE -SrRlXc;  WoRR 


20; 


5.  Why  do  the  leaves  curl?  Does  this  economize  water? 
Explain. 

6.  Why  do  some  dry  and  drop  ofT,  if  the  drought  continues  ? 

Experiment,  i. — Make  a  small  hole  in 
the  center  of  a  piece  of  paper  or  card- 
board and  cut  a  slit  from  the  hole  to  the 
edge.  Place  this  around  the  stem  of  any 
potted  plant,  and  invert  over  it  a  glass 
jar  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  If  placed 
in  the  sunshine,  the  water  given  off  from 
the  leaves  of  the  plant  as  vapor  will,  in  a 
short  time,  begin  to  collect  on  the  inside 
of  the  jar.  No  moisture  can  come  from 
the  soil  through  the  cardboard,  so  all  of 
it  must  come  from  the  plant. 

7.  Which  weeds  die  first,  the 
strong  or  the  weak  ones?  Why? 

8.  Which  survive  the  longer  ?  Why  ?  Consider  the  size  of 
the  plants;  the  depth  reached  by  their  roots;  the  number  of 
plants  near  them  that  helped  to  use  up  the  moisture;  and  the 
difference  in  soil  if  there  be  any. 

9.  Is  the  death  of  the  weaker  an  advantage  to  the  stronger  ? 
If  so,  why? 

10.  Is  it  an  advantage  to  the  species  that  some  get  a  good 
start  and  become  strong  and  deep-rooted  before  the  dry  season 
comes?  Explain. 

11.  What  does  this  fact  mean  in  the  broad  iicld  of  nature? 
Would  it  be  well  for  every  plant  of  the  same  kind  to  be  equal 
in  size  and  endurance? 

12.  As  it  is  now,  w^hich  plants  furnish  most  of  the  seeds 
that  get  scattered  and  grow,  the  strong  ones  or  the  weak? 

Experiment  2.— Supply  water  regularly  to  a  portion  of  the  plants 
that  are  dpng  for  thirst  and  describe  the  results. 


204         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

13.  Do  they  entirely  overcome  the  effects  of  the  drought? 
'14.  Do  they  produce  as  many  seeds  and  as  large  in  size  as 
though  they  had  suffered  no  drought  ? 

15.  What  advantage  have  irrigated  crops  in  this  respect 
over  those  that  depend  upon  rain  for  their  moisture  ? 

Note. — One  reason  for  the  richer  flavor  of  fruits  raised  in  the  arid 
regions,  where  they  are  irrigated  regularly,  over  those  raised  where 
they  depend  upon  rain,  is  that  the  growth  of  the  former  is  never  interrupt- 
ed by  drought,  while  the  latter  is  retarded  quite  often  and  the  fruit  never 
fully  recovers  from  the  effect. 

16.  What  is  the  effect  of  missing  one's  "watering  turn" 
upon  an  irrigated  farm  ? 

17.  Collect  samples  of  plants  for  the  school  cabinet  that 
will  illustrate  the  effects  of  drought  and  abundance  of  water 
upon  their  growth. 

18.  How  do  plants  that  inhabit  the  arid  regions  permanently 
economize  moisture?  Are  their  leaves  as  numerous  and  as 
large  as  those  growing  in  the  humid  regions? 

LESSON   LVII 

PLANT  STRUGGLES— NEIGHBORS 

1.  Why  do  we  "weed  "a  garden?  In  what  ways  do  weeds 
injure  cultivated  plants? 

2.  Why  are  crops  of  sugar  beets  "  thinned  ?"  At  what  age 
is  this  work  done?  Why? 

3.  Why  is  only  half  as  much  seed  grain  sown  upon  a  dry 
farm  as  upon  one  that  is  irrigated  in  the  arid  regions  ? 

4.  Why  are  orchard  trees  thinned  by  pruning  ? 

5.  Do  plants  generally  thrive  as  well  in  dense  groups  as  in 
more  scattered  conditions? 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK  205 

6.  What  conditions  will  aid  plants  in  growing  in  dense 
communities  ? 

7.  Why  are  wild  plants  thicker  on  a  ditch  bank  than  on  an 
open,  dryer  piece  of  ground? 

8.  Is  it  profitable  to  plant  a  garden  or  to  set  out  shrubs  in 
an  orchard  where  the  trees  are  so  large  as  to  shade  the  ground  ? 

9.  Tell  how  different  plants  that  you  have  seen  continue 
to  live  in  crowded  places. 

Experiment. — Select  some  common  plant,  as  the  dandelion,  to  study 
in  relation  to  its  neighbors,  and  report  your  observations  to  the  class. 

10.  Describe  its  conduct  on  the  lawn  and  how  it  escapes 
the  lawn  mower,  and  succeeds  in  developing  its  seeds  and 
getting  them  scattered. 

11.  Tell  how  differently  it  acts  in  a  meadow,  in  a  field  of 
alfalfa,  or  when  surrounded  by  tall  neighbors. 

12.  Observe  and  report  upon  how  other  plants  adapt 
themselves  to  their  surroundings. 

13.  What  is  the  shape  of  a  tree  growing  near  the  wall  of  a 
building  ?  How  do  clumps  of  trees  influence  the  shape  of  one 
another  ? 

14.  Is  the  undergrowth  as  dense  in  the  woods  where  the 
fohage  of  the  trees  is  dense  as  where  it  is  open  ? 

15.  Do  the  same  wild  plants  always  grow  in  the  same 
places  or  do  they  change  from  year  to  year? 

16.  Does  nature  ever  rotate  her  crops  as  the  farmer  does? 

17.  Have  you  ever  seen  one  community  of  plants  run  out 
another?  How  did  it  do  it? 

18.  Why  will  dandelions  run  out  lawn  grass  ? 

19.  What  advantages  have  weeds  in  a  garden  over  the 
crops  planted  there? 


2o6         NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

20*  Explain  the  difference  between  a  well  cultivated  and 
a  neglected  garden. 

LESSON  LVIII 

PLANT  STRUGGLES— CLIMATE 

I.  What  fruits  grow  in  southern  countries  that  will  not 
grow  here?  Make  a  list  of  them. 

'     2.  What  other  trees  or  plants  will  grow  there  but  not  here  ? 

3.  What  crops  are  raised  here  but  not  in  countries  far  north 
of  us?  Make  a  hst  of  them. 

4.  Why  will  not  all  these  plants  grow  everywhere  ? 

5.  When  do  our  latest  frosts  occur  in  the  spring?  When  do 
our  earliest  ones  come  in  the  fall  ?  Examine  your  Meteorolog- 
ical Records  or  the  Weather  Bureau  reports. 

7.  How  long  a  summer  have  our  plants  to  develop  their 
seeds  without  injury  from  frosts? 

8.  Can  plants  that  require  a  longer  time  thrive  in  this 
latitude?  Why? 

9.  How  do  the  annual  plants  contrive  to  pass  the  cold 
winters,  and  produce  like  plants  from  year  to  year  ? 

10.  Are  any  of  the  seeds  of  wild  annual  plants  here  injured 
by  the  cold  and  wet?  Are  any  of  the  seeds  of  the  cultivated 
plants  injured  in  that  way? 

II.  What  seeds  are  injured  by  freezing?  Which  are 
not? 

12.  How  do  the  biennial  plants  manage  to  endure  the 
rigors  of  our  winters? 

13.  What  precautions  do  plants  take  to  escape  being 
injured  by  winter  weather? 


FIFTH  GRADE— SPRING  WORK 


207 


14.  Should  a  late  frost  in  the  spring  kill  the  bursting  buds 
on  a  tree,  what  would  be  the  results  ? 

15.  How  do  the  trees  and  other  plants  of  the  far  north 
adapt  themselves  to  the  cold  climate  there?  (Recall  lessons 
15  and  16,  on  evergreen  and  deciduous  trees,  pages  29  and 

31- 

16.  Make  a  list  of  plants  that  grow  in  each  of  the  zones. 

LESSON  LIX 

PLANT  STRUGGLES— ANIMALS 

1.  When  the  top  of  the  grass  is  eaten  off  by  animals,  does 
it  usually  die? 

2.  Does  mowing  down  weeds  generally  kill  them  ? 

3.  What  effect  upon  the  grass  has  mowing  the  lawn? 

Experiment. — Cut  off  the  stems  of  several  weeds  and  other  plants  at 
different  distances  from  the  roots  and  find  out  by  the  actual  test  where 
each  kind  must  be  cut  to  kill  it.  Also  note  the  effort  to  survive  when 
cut  off  above  the  fatal  point. 

4.  In  hoeing  the  garden,  what  use  can  we  make  of  this 
knowledge  ? 

5.  When  the  central  seed  stock  is  eaten  or  cut  off,  why  are 
others  produced  on  the  side? 

6.  When  is  this  habit  useful  to  man  ?  When  is  it  harmful  to 
him? 

7.  How  does  this  habit  of  plants  affect  the  ranges  ? 

8.  Why  will  a  herd  of  sheep  destroy  the  grass  on  the  range 
more  quickly  than  a  herd  of  cattle  will?  Which  cats  off  the 
grass  lower?  Why? 


2o8  NATURE  STUDY  BY  GRADES 

9.  At  what  point  must  most  weeds  be  cut  off  to  kill  them? 

10.  Why  do  some  weeds  have  to  be  plowed  under  to  be 
destroyed  ? 

11.  In  what  ways  do  plants  keep  animals  from  eating 
them? 

1 2 .  What  plants  have  spines  ?  Of  what  use  are  they  ? 

13.  What  plants  have  a  foul  odor  ?  a  bad  taste? 

14.  Do  any  plants  use  color  in  any  way  to  protect  themselves 
or  their  seeds  from  injury  ? 

15.  Why  have  most  unripe  fruits  a  green  color  and  a  bad 
taste  ? 

16.  Is  the  smooth  skin  of  the  apple,  the  fuzzy  skin  of  the 
peach,  the  bony  rind  of  the  squash,  a  protection  from  any 
animal  that  would  harm  the  seeds  within  ? 

17.  Find  how  other  plants  are  protected  from  the  attacks 
of  animals. 


:**  C#r' 


SUPPLEMENTARY  READING 


^  This  grading,  which  is  simply  suggestive,   represents  the 
earliest  years  in  which  these  books  can  be  read  to  advantage. 

GEOGRAPHY 

YEAR 

5  Carpenter's  Geographical  Reader — North  America     ....  |o.6o 

5  Geographical  Reader — South  America 60 

6  Geographical  Reader — Europe 7° 

6  Geographical  Reader — Asia 60 

6  Geographical    Reader — Australia,     Our     Colonies,     and 

Other  Islands  of  the  Sea 60 

6  Geographical  Reader — Africa 60 

1  Dutton's  Fishing  and  Hunting  (World  at  Work  Series)       .      .        .30 

2  In  Field  and  Pasture  (World  at  Work  Series) 35 

5      Guyot  Geographical  Reader  (Pratt) 60 

4      Krout's  Alice's  Visit  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands 45 

4  Two  Girls  in  China 45 

3  Long's  Home  Geography 2.5 

4  MacClintock's  The  Philippines 4° 

3      Payne's  Geographical  Nature  Studies 25 

2     Schwartz's  Five  Little  Strangers 4° 

2  Shaw's  Big  People  and  Little  People  of  Other  Lands       ...        .30 

NATURE  STUDY 

3  Abbott's  A  Boy  on  a  Farm  (Johnson) 45 

3      Bartlett's  Animals  at  Home 45 

I      Beebe  and  Kingsley's  First  Year  Nature  Reader 35 

3  Bradish's  Stories  of  Country  Life  . 4° 

4  Dana's  Plants  and  Their  Children 65 

5  Holder's  Half  Hours  with  the  Lower  Animals 60 

5  Half  Hours  with  Fishes,  Reptiles,  and  Birds 60 

4  Stories  of  Animal  Life 6° 

3      Kelly's  Short  Stories  of  Our  Shy  Neighbors 5° 

3      Monteith's  Some  Useful  Animals 5° 

3  Familiar  Animals  and  Their  Wild  Kindred 50 

4  Living  Creatures  of  Water,  Land,  and  Air 50 

6  Popular  Science  Reader 75 

5  Needham's  Outdoor  Studies 4° 

3      Pyle's  Stories  of  Humble  Friends 5° 

3      Stokes's  Ten  Common  Trees 4° 

5      Walker's  Our  Birds  and  Their  Nestlings 60 


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HICKS'S      CHAMPION 
SPELLING      BOOK 

By    WARREN    E.     HICKS,    Assistant    Superintendent    of 
Schools,    Cleveland,    Ohio 

Complete,  $0.25    -     Part  One,  $0.18    -     Part  Two,  ^0.18 


THIS  book  embodies  the  method  that  enabled  the  pupils 
in  the  Cleveland  schools  after  two  years  to  win  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association  Spelling  Contest  of  1908. 
^  By  this  method  a  spelling  lesson  of  ten  words  is  given  each 
day  from  the  spoken  vocabulary  of  the  pupil.  Of  these  ten 
words  two  are  selected  for  intensive  study,  and  in  the  spelling 
book  are  made  prominent  in  both  position  and  type  at  the  head 
of  each  day's  lessons,  these  two  words  being  followed  by  the 
remaining  eight  words  in  smaller  type.  Systematic  review  is 
provided  throughout  the  book.  Each  of  the  ten  prominent 
words  taught  intensively  in  a  week  is  listed  as  a  subordinate 
word  in  the  next  two  weeks;  included  in  a  written  spelling 
contest  at  the  end  of  eight  weeks ;  again  in  the  annual  contest 
at  the  end  of  the  year  ;  and  again  as  a  subordinate  word  in  the 
following  year's  work; — used  five  times  in  all  within  two 
years. 

^  The  Champion  Spelling  Book  consists  of  a  series  of  lessons 
arranged  as  above  for  six  school  years,  from  the  third  to  the 
eighth,  inclusive.  It  presents  about  1,200  words  each  year, 
and  teaches  3  i  2  of  them  with  especial  clearness  and  intensity. 
It  also  includes  occasional  supplementary  exercises  which  serve 
as  aids  in  teaching  sounds,  vowels,  homonyms,  rules  of  spell- 
ing, abbreviated  forms,  suffixes,  prefixes,  the  use  of  hyphens, 
plurals,  dictation  work,  and  word  building.  The  words  have 
been  selected  from  lists,  supplied  by  grade  teachers  of  Cleve- 
land schools,  of  words  ordinarily  misspelled  by  the  pupils  of 
their  respective  grades. 


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STEADMANS'    WRITING 

Muscular    Movement 


8  Pads — one  for  each  year — each  containing  40  sheets,    80  pages,  or  3J.3 
times  as  much  as  the  ordinary  copybook.  -  Price,  each,   i  5  cents. 


STEADMANS'  Graded  Lessons  in  Writing  train  the 
child  to  maintain  a  truly  healthful  position,  and  to  use 
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ing over  the  desk,  cramping  the  lung  space,  bringing  the  eyes 
so  close  to  the  paper  that  they  are  permanently  injured,  be- 
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harmful  tendencies  of  former  days. 

*jjThis  system  teaches  the  child  to  write  a  good,  characteristic 
hand  that  will  remain  with  him  through  life.  The  course  is 
presented  in  eight  pads.  Each  pad  is  a  complete  cycle, 
covering  the  work  for  an  entire  year,  and  containing  forty 
sheets,  eighty  pages,  three  and  one-third  times  as  much  as 
a  copybook.  Each  page  presents  a  central  idea,  around 
which  the  lesson  is  constructed.  The  drills  constitute  a  ser- 
ies of  graded,  specialized,  physical  culture  exercises.  These 
exercises  are  so  devised  and  arranged  that  the  pupils  are  led, 
by  easy  gradations,  from  the  simplest  forms  and  letters  to  the 
more  complex.  Each  drill  is  based  upon  the  movement  re- 
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MILNE'S      PROGRESSIVE 
ARITHMETICS 

By  WILLIAM  J.  MILNE,   Ph.D.,  LL.D.,   President  of 
New  York  State  Normal  College,  Albany,  N.  Y. 


THREE  BOOK  SERIES 

First  Book $0.35 

Second  Book 40 

Third  Book 45 


TWO  BOOK  SERIES 

First  Book $o-3S 

Complete  Book     .      .        .      .65 


IN  these  series  the  best  modern  methods  of  instruction  have 
been  combined  with  those  older  features  which  gave  the 
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^  Built  upon  a  definite  pedagogical  plan,  these  books  teach 
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reasoning  faculties,  and  tc  train  the  power  of  rapid,  accurate, 
and  skillful  manipulation  of  numbers.  The  inductive  method 
is  applied,  leading  the  pupils  to  discover  truths  for  them- 
selves ;  but  it  is  supplemented  by  model  solutions  and  careful 
explanations  of  each  step. 

^  Each  new  topic  is  first  carefully  developed,  and  then  en- 
forced by  sufficient  practice  to  fix  it  thoroughly  in  the  mind. 
The  problems,  which  have  been  framed  with  the  greatest  care, 
relate  to  a  wide  range  of  subjects  drawn  from  modern  life  and 
industries.  Reviews  in  various  forms  are  a  marked  feature. 
Usefulness  is  the  keynote. 

^  In  the  First  and  Second  Books  the  amount  of  work  that 
may  be  accomplished  in  a  half  year  is  taken  as  the  unit  of 
classification,  and  the  various  subjects  are  treated  topically, 
each  being  preceded  by  a  brief  resume  of  the  concepts 
already  acquired.  In  the  Third  Book  the  purely  topical 
method  is  used  in  order  to  give  the  pupil  a  coherent 
knowledge  oi'  each  subject.  The  Complete  Book  covers 
the  work  usually  given  to  pupils  during  the  last  four  years 
of  school. 


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MAXWELL'S 
NEW       GRAMMARS 

By  WILLIAM  H.  MAXWELL,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  City  of  New  York 


Elementary  Grammar  .     .  ^0.40 


School  Grammar      .      .        $0.60 


THE  ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR  presents  in  very 
small  space  all  the  grammar  usually  taught  in  elemen- 
tary schools. 
^  It  gives  the  pupil  an  insight  into  the  general  forms  in  which 
thought  is  expressed,  and  enables  him  to  see  the  meaning  oi 
complicated  sentences.  The  explanatory  matter  is  made 
clear  by  the  use  of  simple  language,  by  the  elimination  of 
unnecessary  technical  terms,  and  by  the  frequent  introduction 
of  illustrative  sentences.  The  definitions  are  simple  and  pre- 
cise. The  exercises  are  abundant  and  peculiarly  ingenious. 
A  novel  device  for  parsing  and  analysis  permits  these  two 
subjects  to  be  combined  in  one  exercise  for  purposes  ot  drill. 
^The  SCHOOL  GRAMMAR  contains  everything  needed 
by  students  in  upper  grammar  grades  and  secondary  schools. 
It  covers  fully  the  requirements  of  the  Syllabus  in  English 
issued  by  the  New  York  State  Education  Department. 
^The  book  treats  of  grammar  only,  and  presents  many 
exercises  which  call  for  considerable  reflection  on  the  mean- 
ing of  the  expressions  to  be  analyzed.  Throughout,  stress 
is  laid  on  the  broader  distinctions  of  thought  and  expression. 
The  common  errors  of  written  and  spoken  language  are  so 
classified  as  to  make  it  comparatively  easy  for  pupils  to 
detect  and  correct  them  through  the  application  of  the  rules 
of  grammar.  The  book  ends  with  an  historical  sketch  ot 
the  English  language,  an  article  on  the  formation  of  words, 
and  a  hst  of  equivalent  terms  employed  by  other  grammari- 
ans.    The  full  index  makes  the  volume  useful  for  reference. 


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RODDY'S     GEOGRAPHIES 

By  JUSTIN   RODDY,   M.S.,   Department  of  Geography, 
First  Pennsylvania  State  Normal  School,  Millersville,  Pa. 


Elementary  Geography      .   $0.50 


Complete  Geography 


)I.OO 


THIS  ** information"  series  meets  a  distinct  demand  for 
new  geographies  which  are  thoroughly  up  to  date,  and 
adapted  for  general  use,  rather  than  for  a  particular  use 
in  a  highly  specialized  and  organized  ideal  system.  While 
not  too  technical  and  scientific,  it  includes  sufficient  physio- 
graphic information  for  the  needs  of  most  teachers. 
^  An  adequate  amount  of  material  is  included  in  each  book 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  those  grades  forwhich  it  is  designed. 
This  matter  is  presented  so  simply  that  the  pupil  can  readily 
understand  it,  and  so  logically  that  it  can  easily  be  taught  by 
the  average  teacher. 

^  The  simplicity  of  the  older  methods  of  teaching  this  subject 
is  combined  with  just  so  much  of  the  modern  scientific  methods 
of  presentation  as  is  thoroughly  adapted  to  elementary  grades. 
Only  enough  physiography  is  included  to  develop  the  funda- 
mental relations  of  geography,  and  to  animate  and  freshen  the 
study,  without  overloading  it  in  this  direction. 
^  The  physical  maps  of  the  grand  divisions  are  drawn  to  the 
same  scale,  thus  enabling  the  pupil  to  form  correct  concepts 
of  the  relative  size  of  countries.  The  political  and  more  de- 
tailed maps  are  not  mere  skeletons,  giving  only  the  names 
which  are  required  by  the  text,  but  are  full  enough  to  serve 
all  ordinary  purposes  for  reference.  In  addition,  they  show 
the  principal  railroads  and  canals,  the  head  of  navigation  on 
all  important  rivers,  and  the  standard  divisions  of  time. 
^  The  illustrations  are  new  and  fresh,  reproduced  mostly 
from  photographs  collected  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Formal  map  studies  or  questions  accompany  each  map,  direct- 
ing attention  to  the  most  important  features. 


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WEBSTER'S 
SCHOOL     DICTIONARIES 


Revised   Editions 


T 


HESE  Dictionaries  have  been  thoroughly  revised, 
entirely  reset,  and  made  to  conform  to  that  great  stand- 
ard authority — Webster's  International  Dictionary. 


WEBSTER'S  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  DICTION- 
ARY   ^0.48 

Containing  over  20,000  words  and  meanings,  with  over 
400  illustrations. 

WEBSTER'S  COMMON  SCHOOL  DICTION- 
ARY   $0.72 

Containing  over  25,000  words  and  meanings,  with  over 
500  illustrations. 

WEBSTER'S  HIGH  SCHOOL  DICTIONARY,  $0.98 

Containing  about  37,000  words  and  definitions,  and  an 
appendix  giving  a  pronouncing  vocabulary  of  Biblical, 
Classical,  Mythological,  Historical,  and  Geographical  proper 
names,  with  over  800  illustrations. 

WEBSTER'S  ACADEMIC  DICTIONARY 

Cloth,  ^1.50;   Indexed ^1.80 

Half  Calf,  $2.'/^;  Indexed 3- 00 

Abridged  directly  from  the  International  Dictionary,  and 
giving  the  orthography,  pronunciations,  definitions,  and 
synonyms  of  about  60,000  words  in  common  use,  with  an 
appendix  containing  various  useful  tables,  with  over  800 
illustrations. 

SPECIAL  EDITIONS 

Webster's  Countinghouse  Dictionary.      Sheep, 

Indexed $2.40 

Webster's  Handy  Dictionary 15 

Webster's  Pocket  Dictionary 5  7 

The  same.      Roan,  Flexible 69 

The  same.      Roan,  Tucks 78 

The  same.      Morocco,  Indexed     ...        .90 


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DAVISON'S     HUMAN     BODY 
AND     HEALTH 

By  ALVIN  DAVISON,  M.S.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  or 
Biology  in  Lafayette  College. 

Intermediate  Book     .      $0.50        Advanced  Book     .      $0.80 


THE  object  of  these  books  is  to  promote  health  and  pre- 
vent disease ;  and  at  the  same  time  to  do  it  in  such 
a  way  as  will  appeal  to  the  interest  of  boys  and  girls, 
and  fix  in  their  minds  the  essentials  of  right  living.  They  are 
books  of  real  service,  which  teach  mainly  the  lessons  of  health- 
ful, sanitary  living,  and  the  prevention  of  disease,  which  do  not 
waste  time  on  the  names  of  bones  and  organs,  which  furnish 
information  that  everyone  ought  to  know,  and  which  are  both 
practical  in  their  application  and  interesting  in  their  presentation. 
^  These  books  make  clear: 

^  That  the  teaching  of  physiology  in  our  schools  can  be  made 
more  vital  and  serviceable  to  humanity. 

^  That  anatomy  and  physiology  are  of  little  value  to  young 
people,  unless  they  help  them  to  practice  in  their  daily  lives 
the  teachings  of  hygiene  and  sanitation. 

^  That  both  personal  and  public  health  can  be  improved  by 
teaching  certain  basal  truths,  thus  decreasing  the  death  rate, 
now  so  large  from  a  general  ignorance  of  common  diseases. 
^  That  such  instruction  should  show  how  these  diseases, 
colds,  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  and 
malaria  are  contracted  and  how  they  can  be  prevented. 
^  That  the  foundation  for  much  of  the  illness  in  later  life  is 
laid  by  the  boy  and  girl  during  school  years,  and  that  in- 
struction which  helps  the  pupils  to  understand  the  care  of  the 
body,  and  the  true  value  of  fresh  air,  proper  food,  exercise,  and 
cleanliness,  will  add  much  to  the  wealth  of  a  nation  and  the 
happiness  of  its  people. 


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